Методические указания и контрольные работы по английскому языку для студентов заочной формы обучения технических специальностей

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БУРЯТИЯ

Государственное бюджетное профессиональное образовательное учреждение

«Авиационный техникум»

Английский язык

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ И КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ

по английскому языку для студентов заочной формы обучения

технических специальностей

Настоящиеметодическиеуказанияпоанглийскому языкусодержатрекомендацииповыполнениюконтрольныхработ,краткийграмматический справочникитекстыдлядополнительногочтения,предназначенныедля студентов заочной и дистанционнойформобучения,продолжающихизучение английскогоязыка.

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ВЫПОЛНЕНИЕ КОНТРОЛЬНЫХ ЗАДАНИЙ И ОФОРМЛЕНИЕ

КОНТРОЛЬНЫХ РАБОТ……………………………………………………4

ТРЕБОВАНИЯ К ЗАЧЁТУ………………………………………………6

КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ……………………………………………8

Контрольное задание № 1 …………………………………………………...8

Контрольное задание № 2……………………………………………………17

Контрольное задание № 3…………………………………………………….27

ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ЧТЕНИЯ………………………35

СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ………………………64

ВЬПОЛНЕНИЕ КОНТРОЛЬНЫХ ЗАДАНИЙ И ОФОРМЛЕНИЕ

КОНТРОЛЬНЫХ РАБОТ

Для практическогоовладениянемецкимязыкомприочно-заочнойформеобученияданныеметодическиеуказанияучитываюттребованиятиповойпрограммыпоиностранномуязыкуипредусматривают39часовсамостоятельнойработыстудента-заочника вовсехчетырехсеместрах.Объемпрактическихаудиторныхзанятийравен17часамвпервомсеместреи 11часамвовторомсеместре.Навыполнениекаждойконтрольнойработыпредусматривается5часовсамостоятельнойработы.

1. Количество контрольных заданий, выполняемых вами на каждом курсе, устанавливается учебным планом образовательного учреждения.

2. Каждое контрольное задание в данном пособии предлагается в пяти вариантах. Вы должны выполнить два варианта из одной контрольной работы в соответствии с индивидуальным распределением на предварительной консультации.

3. Выполнять письменные контрольные работы следует в отдельной тетради. На обложке тетради напишите свою фамилию, номер контрольной работы, номер специальности и факультет.

4. Контрольные работы должны выполняться синими (фиолетовыми) чернилами, аккуратно, четким почерком. При выполнении контрольной работы оставляйте в тетради широкие поля для замечаний, объяснений и методических указаний рецензента.

Материал контрольной работы следует располагать в тетради по следующему образцу:

5. Контрольные работы должны быть выполнены в той последовательности, в которой они даны в настоящем пособии.

6. В каждом контрольном задании выделяется один или два абзаца для проверки умения читать без словаря, понимать основную мысль, изложенную в абзаце (или абзацах). Ниже предлагается несколько вариантов ответа. Среди этих вариантов необходимо найти тот, который наиболее правильно и четко отвечает на поставленный вопрос.

7. Выполненные контрольные работу сдаются для проверки и рецензирования преподавателю английского языка в установленные сроки.

Если контрольная работа выполнена без соблюдения указаний или неполностью, она возвращается без проверки.

ИСПРАВЛЕНИЕ РАБОТЫ НА ОСНОВЕ РЕЦЕНЗИЙ

1. При получении от рецензента проверенной контрольной работы внимательно прочитайте рецензию, ознакомьтесь с замечаниями рецензента и проанализируйте отмеченные в работе ошибки.

2. Руководствуясь указаниями рецензента, проработайте еще раз учебный материал. Все предложения, в которых были обнаружены орфографические и грамматические ошибки или неточности перевода, перепишите начисто в исправленном виде в конце данной контрольной работы (работа над ошибками).

3. Только после того, как будут выполнены все указания рецензента и исправлены все ошибки, можно приступить к изучению материала очередного контрольного задания и его выполнению.

4. Отрецензированные контрольные работы являются учебными документами, которые необходимо сохранять; помните о том, что во время зачета или экзамена производится проверка усвоения материала, вошедшего в контрольные работы.

ТРЕБОВАНИЯКЗАЧЕТУ

Кзачету в I-ом семестре допускаютсястуденты,выполнившиевписьменномвидеи защитившиенаофициальном зачете два варианта из одной контрольной работы.

К зачёту во втором семестре допускаются студентыперевод текста из раздела «Тексты для дополнительного чтения» и проектное задание по одной из тематик, предусмотренных программой и перечисленных ниже.

Назачетеосуществляетсяконтрольчтенияи пониманияпредложенноготекстананемецкомязыке,включающеговсебяизученныйнаданномэтапелексико-грамматическийматериал.

Формыпроверкипониманиясодержаниятекста:письменныйилиустныйпереводвсеготекстаилиегофрагмента,ответынавопросыпо содержаниютекста,выборсоответствующеговариантаответаизрядапредложенныхвысказываний,другиеформыконтроля.

Форма проверки проектного задания:

предварительный просмотр преподавателем;

вопросно-ответная деятельность.

Проектное задание сдаётся на электронном носителе CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R. Проектное задание оформляется в форме электронной презентации с помощью программы Power Point в количестве не менее 15-страниц, включая титульный лист, содержание, список использованной литературы. Проектное задание выполняется по одной из следующих тематик:

Страна изучаемого языка – Королевство Великобритания.

Страна изучаемого языка – Шотландия.

Страна изучаемого языка – Соединённые Штаты Америки.

Достопримечательности Великобритании (на выбор 4 достопримечательности).

Как прекрасен этот мир! (на выбор следующие подтемы:)

- моя Родина (географическое положение, столица, озеро Байкал);

- здоровье планеты (экологическая обстановка на Земле).

6) Мои профессиональные планы.

КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ

КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № I

Для того, чтобы правильно выполнить задание № I, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы курса:

1. Имя существительное. Множественное число. Артикли и предлоги как показатели имени существительного. Выражения падежных отношений в английском языке с помощью предлогов и окончания -s . Существительное в функции определения и его перевод на русский язык.

2. Имя прилагательное. Степени сравнения имен прилагательных. Конструкциитипа the more…the less.

3. Числительные.

4.Местоимения: личные, притяжательные, вопросительные, указательные, неопределенные и отрицательные.

5. Форма настоящего (Present), прошедшего (Раst) и будущего (Future) времени группы Indefinite действительного залога изъявительного наклонения. Спряжениеглаголов to be, to have в Present, Past, Future Indefinite. Повелительное наклонение и его отрицательная форма.

6. Простое распространенное предложение: прямой порядок слов повествовательного и побудительного предложений в утвердительной и отрицательной формах; обратный порядок слов вопросительного предложения. Оборот thereis (are).

7. Основные случаи словообразования.

Используйте следующие образцы выполнения упражнений.

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ I (к упр.1)

Грамматическая функция окончания -s

1. The students attend lectures and Студентыпосещаютлекциии

seminars on History and Chemistry семинары по истории и химии.

Lectures,students - множественное число имени существительного

a lecture - лекция

a student -студент

2. Helecturesonhistory Он читает лекции по истории.

Lectures - 3-елицоединственногочислаотгл. to lecture в Present Indefinite.

3. My brother’s son is a studentСынмоегобрата – студент.

В слове brother’s -s - окончание притяжательного падежа имени существительного в единственном числе.

My brothers’ sons are students. Сыновья моих братьев - студенты.

Слово - форма притяжателъного падежаимени существительного abrotherво множественном числе.

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2 (к упр. II)

Особенности перевода на русский язык английских именсуществительных, употребляющихся в функции определения, стоящего перед определяемым словом.

1.The scientist works at some Этотученыйработаетнаднекоторыми

problem oflow temperature physics. проблемами физики низких

температур.

2. This girl studies at our state university. Эта девушка учится в нашем

государственном университете.

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 3 (к упр. У)

Lomonosovfounded the first Russian Ломоносовосновалпервыйрусский

University in Moscow. университет в Москве.

Founded - Past Indefinite Active отстандартногоглагола to found.

This student will take the examination Этотстудентбудетсдаватьэкзаменin June. в июне.

will take - Future Indefinite Active отнестандартногоглагола to take.

ВАРИАНТ 1

1. Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова, оформленные окончанием -s и какую функцию это окончание выполняет, т.е. служит ли оно:

а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола в PresentIndefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного (см. образец выполнения I).

Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The “Big Ben” clock weighs 13.5 tons.

2. Most of London’s places of interest are situated to the north of the river Thames.

3. HydeParkcovers 360 acres.

2^. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений, выраженных именем существительным, и подчеркните их(см. образец выполнения 2).

1. The bus stop is not far from here.

2. Several Moscow University physicists work at this problem.

З. There are only daylight lamps in this room.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы сравнения, подчеркните их и переведите и предложения на русские язык:

1. One of the most famous buildings in England is St. Paul’s Cathedral.

2. This room is smaller than that one.

3. The longer is the night, the shorter is the day.

4. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных местоимений:

1. At some of the London Underground stations there are lifts, other have escalators.

2. Any student of our group can speak on the history of London.

3. No park in London is as popular as Hyde Park.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видо-временную форму глагола и укажите их инфинитив; переведите предложения на русский язык (см. образец выполнения 3).

1. This student first came to Moscow in 1999.

2. The Port of London is to the east of the City.

3. In a few days she will leave for London.

6. Прочитайте и устно переведите на русский язык с 1-го по 7-й абзацы текста. Перепишитеиписьменнопереведите 1, 2, 3, 6 и 7-йабзацы.

LONDON

1. London is the capital of Great Britain. It lies in the South East of England on both banks of the river Thames. London is one of the largest cities in the world and the largest port and industrial town in England. London is more than twenty centuries old.

2. The heart of the capital is the City. The territory of the City is only about one square mile, but it is the financial and business centre of the country. It contains almost all important English banks and offices.

3. The West End of London is famous for its beautiful monuments and palaces, fine parks, fashionable shops and big hotels. The East End is quite different from the West End. It is the district of factories, plants and docks. The narrow streets and poor houses of the East End present a contrast to the homes of the rich people in the West End.

4. There are many places of interest in London. One of them is Trafalgar Square with the Nelson monument 185 feet high. Buckingham Palace is the royal residence. Westminster Abbey is one of the most beautiful buildings in London. It contains the memorials of many famous citizens of Britain.

5. Across the road from Westminster Abbey there are the Houses of Parliament, the seat of the British government.

6. The Tower of London is one of the most interesting places in London. It was a fortress, a royal residence, a prison, now it is a museum.

7. London is famous for its green parks. Hyde Park is the most popular of them. It is the greatest park in London as well.

8. London is the centre of the country's cultural life. There are many picture galleries and museums there. The National Gallery houses a priceless collection of paintings. The famous British Museum is one of the best museums in the world. In the library of the British Museum many famous people worked and gathered the material for their works.

7. Прочитайте 8-й абзац и вопрос к нему. Какой из вариантов ответа соответствует по содержанию одному из предложений текста?

Who worked in the library of the British Museum?

1. Prominent scientists worked there.

2. A number of writers gathered materials for their works there.

3. Many famous people worked and gathered the material in the library of that museum.

ВАРИАНТ 2

Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова, оформленные окончанием -s, и какую функцию это окончание выполняет, т.е. служит ли оно:

а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола в PresentIndefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного (см. образец выполнения 1).

Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. Now Moscow's boundaries expanded considerably.

2. There are many new industries in Moscow now.

3. Moscow exports a great variety of goods.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений, выраженных именем существительным, и подчеркните их (см. образец 2).

1. The students of our group will go to the state History Museum tomorrow.

2. There are many stadiums and sport halls in Moscow.

3. Moscow plants produce such goods as lorries, passenger vehicles, sea and river vessels, diesel locomotives etc.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы сравнения, подчеркните их и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world.

2. The more I thought of that plan, the less I like it.

3. Your translation is better than mine.

4. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных местоимений.

1. The city has some fifty theatres, many concert halls and numerous cinemas.

2. Does he know any foreign language?

3. Any exhibit of this museum is valuable.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видо-временные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив; переведите предложения на русский язык (см. образец выполнения 3).

Today the population of Moscow is more than 8 million people.

2. The town developed quickly due to its favourable geographical position.

3. In two years my brother will become an engineer.

6. Прочитайте и устно переведите на русский язык с 1-го по 5-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 1, 2, 3 и 4-й абзацы текста:

MOSCOW

1. Moscowwasfoundedin 1147. The town developed quickly due to its favourable geographical position. In the 13-th century Moscow was ruined by the Tatar invaders and for many years payed tribute to the Tatar khans, but at the end of the 14-th century the Russian people rose against the invaders and defeated them.

2. In the 16-th century Moscow was an administrative and trade centre of the country and it became the capital of Russia.

3. At the beginning of the 18-th century the capital was moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg, but Moscow continued to grow as a trading centre. With the invasion of Napoleon in, 1812 Moscow was destroyed by fire, but soon it was rebuilt. In 1918 Moscow became the capital of the country again. Now it is a great political, economic and cultural centre of Russia. The heart of the city is the Kremlin and Red Square. Moscow is a great industrial centre. More than 1.500 factories and plants are situated in the city.

4. Today the population of the city is over 9 million people. It is one of the largest cities in Europe, Every day Moscow is visited by more than one million people.

5. Moscow is a great cultural centre. There are more than 80 institutes and colleges, 4000 libraries, about 315clubs more than 60 theatres and over one hundred museums in Moscow. Moscow is famous for its historical monuments, beautiful parks and also its metro. Moscow metro was built in 1935. It has over one hundred stations. The metro lines are 200 km long. Every day more than 5 million passengers are carried by underground trains. There are a lot of sport facilities in Moscow.

7.Прочитайте 5-йабзацивопроскнему.Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите предложение, содержащее правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

How many people visit Moscow every day?

1. Moscow is visited by 5 million people every day.

2. Moscow is visited by more than one million people every day.

3. Moscow is visited by many people every day.

BAPИAHT 3

1. Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова, оформленные окончанием -s, и какую функцию это окончание выполняет, т.е. служит ли оно:

а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола в PresentIndefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного (см. образец выполнения 1).

Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. The lecturer gave several examples of the Sevastopol scientists' international ties.

2. The foundation of Sevastopol dates back to 1783.

3. The author mentions this phenomenon in his article.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений, выраженных именем существительным, и подчеркните их(см. образец 2).

1. His father was one of the leaders of the partisan movement during World War II.

2. The reporter spoke about the peace programme in the world.

3. Not long ago our family moved into a large three-room flat.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы сравнения, подчеркните их и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The more I studied the English language, the more I liked it.

2. My friend is one of the best students of our group.

3.This room is smaller than that one.

4. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных местоимений.

1. No student of that group studies Spanish.

2. Some five hundred people were present at the meeting.

3. Have you any books on chemistry?

5. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видо-временную форму глагола и укажите его инфинитив; переведите предложения на русский язык (см. образец выполнения 3).

1. The dean will come here later.

2. The student made no mistakes in his translation.

3. Plasma is the fourth state of matter.

6. Прочитайте и устно переведите на русский язык с 1-го по 6-Й абзацы текста. Перепишитеиписьменнопереведитеих.

SEVASTOPOL

1. In translation from the Greak Sevastopol means"a magnificent city", "a city of glory". That is really so. Sevastopol's history has many glorious chapters. Everybody knows about the defence of Sevastopol during the Crimean war (1853-1856). The sailors, soldiers and the entire population fought against the enemy. Lev Tolstoy wrote about it in his "Sevastopol Sketches".

2. We know and remember the defence of Sevastopol in the Great Patriotic War. It continued for 250 days and cost the nazi invaders 300,000 officers and men.

3. After the fascist invasion Sevastopol was in ruins. There were only a few buildings in the centre of the city. Today Sevastopol stretches for dozens of kilometres.

4. Sevastopol is a naval city. Its yards (верфи) build passenger ships and repair merchant vessels. They build powerful floating cranes as well.

5. Sevastopol is also a research centre. Scientists of the country's oldest Institute of Biology of Southern Seas investigate the World Ocean. They have modern expeditionary ships at their disposal.

6. A museum-city is yet another name of Sevastopol. Monuments of culture, memorials, obelisks and sculptural groups form an organic part of its image.

7. There is an entry in the visitors' book of the Panorama of the 1854-1855 defence of Sevastopol: "Malakhov Hill” is a small hill, but what a good view opens from it of Russia, the entire history of its people and their historic exploit.

7. Прочитайте 7-й абзац текста и письменно ответьте на вопрос:

What is the entry in the visitors' book of the Panorama of the 1854-1855 defence of Sevastopol?

ВАРИАНТ 4

1. Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова, оформленные окончанием -s , и какую функцию это окончание выполняет, т.е. служит ли оно:

а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глаголов в

PresentIndefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного (см. образец выполнения I).

Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The first mention of the city on the Volga dates back to 1589.

2. The doors of the Volgograd Young People's Theatre are always open to children of school age.

3. Both Russian and foreign artists take part in the performances of the Volgograd circus.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений, выраженных именем существительным и пдчеркните их (образец 2).

4. During its four-century-old history the city experienced several dramatic events.

2. Volgograd is now a five-sea port.

3. The 40-meter-high arch which is the entrance to the Volga-Don Navigation Canal rises in the south of Volgograd.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы сравнения, подчеркните их и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The Volga Hydro-Electric Power Station is the biggest in Europe.

2. The more experiments we carry out, the more data we obtain.

3. Volgograd is one of the most beautiful cities in Russia.

4. Перепишите и письменно переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных местоимений.

Any monument in Volgograd has its own history.

Nobody knew anything about this experiment.

The names of some streets and squares are living history of the heroic city.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видо-временные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив; переведите предложения на русский язык (см. образец выполнения 3).

1. Volgograd rose from its ashes more beautiful than before.

2. The entire country took part in the restoration of the hero-city.

3. The beautiful modern city of Volgograd is the best monument to the heroes who defended the city on the Volga during the Great Patriotic War.

6. Прочитайте и переведите на русский язык с 1-го по 4-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2, 3 и 4-й абзацы.

VOLGOGRAD

1. VolgogradstandsonthebeautifulVolga.The city is more than four hundred years old. The rapid development of industry and trade, river and railway transport, in the 19th century led to the intensive growth of the city. The Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 earned the city the immortal glory of a hero-city.

2. The entire country participated in the restoration of the hero-city. The heroic labour of millions of people helped the city to rise from its ashes. And the best monument to the heroes who defended the city on the Volga is the beautiful modern city, wide squares and prospects, its parks and gardens. The city grows from year to year.

3. Today Volgograd is one of the biggest industrial centres: many industrial enterprises, large and small, function here. An endless stream of steel, aluminium, oil and steel cables, tractors, medical equipment and building materials, river boats and chemical products flows day and night from the ports and railway terminals of Volgograd to all corners of our country and abroad.

4. The Volga Hydro-Electric Power Station is the biggest in Europe. The total capacity of its aggregates exceeds 2.5 mln kilowatts. The opening of the Volga-Don Navigation Canal meant the realization of an age-long dream of the people to join

two great rivers - the Volga and the Don. Volgograd is now a port of five seas.

5. Volgograd is also a cultural centre. There are higher secondary educational institutions, a lot of vocational schools and schools of general education there. Many foreign students from the countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America live and study in Volgograd. There are some theatres, a circus and a planetarium in the city.

7. Прочитайте 5-й абзац текста и письменно ответьте на вопрос:

Who studies in educational institutions of Volgograd?

ВАРИАНТ 5

1. Перепишите следующие предложения. Определите по грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова, оформленные окончанием -s , и какую функцию это окончание выполняет, т.е. служит ли оно:

а) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа в present

Indefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного (см. образец выполнения I).

Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. In Washington the streets that go from east to west are named after letters of the alphabet.

2. A well-known scientist works at this plant.

3. The worker's hostel is within 20 minutes' walk from the plant.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их, обращая внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений, выраженных именами существительными, и подчеркните их (образец 2).

1. There are many government offices in Washington.

2. We have a large State library in our city.

3. The scientists developed new synthetic rubber products.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения, содержащие разные формы сравнения,подчеркните их и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The White House is maybe one of the most beautiful places in Washington.

2. The longest and the biggest streets in Washington are named after American States.

3. Automatic devices make labour safer and easier.

4. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие предложения, обращая внимание на перевод неопределенных и отрицательных местоимений.

1. We saw no skyscrapers in Washington.

2. Almost any building of Washington is attractive.

3. There are some museums in Washington.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в них видо-временные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив; переведите предложения на русский язык (см. образец выполнения 3).

1. Washington is very green and peaceful city.

2. G. Washington led the American army in many battles during the War for the American Independence.

3.Мапу places in Washington will tell you about the history of the city.

6. Прочитайте и устно переведите на русский язык с 1-го по 6-й абзацы текста. Перепишитеиписьменнопереведите 1, 2, 3 и 5 абзацы.

WASHINGTON

1. Washington, the District of Columbia (D.C.), does not belong to a state. It is a city and the District of Columbia. It is located on the East Coast. It was chosen by George Washington as the permanent site for nation's capital on December 1, 1800. Washington was the first person to be elected the President of the USA. He was born in Virginia, just south of Washington, D.C.

2. In Washington the streets that go from east to west are named after letters of the alphabet. The streets that go north and south are numbered. The longest and the biggest streets are named after American states. The city is very green and peaceful. There are a lot of beautiful places where you can relax and enjoy yourself.

3. Washington is a special city. Most of the people in Washington work for the government and there are many government offices there.

4. Washington is full of places where you think about history. In its museums and the Capitol you can learn a lot about the first settlements in New England. You will learn about Christopher Columbus and his sailors and about America's fight for independence. Washington is a busy city. The streets are never empty.

5. The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson. He was the third President of the USA. There is the Jefferson Memorial built in honour of T. Jefferson. You can see the Lincoln Memorial. He became the sixteenth President

of the USA in 1861. Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation which freed the blacks in the South from slavery. Inside the memorial is a huge statue of the former president.

6. There is the National Air and Space Museum. Here you can see the history of flight, from the first plane flown by the Wright brothers to the Apollo spaceship. The majestic building is the Supreme Court.

7.Прочитайте 6-йабзацтекстаиписьменноответьтенавопрос:

What can you see in the National Air and Space Museum?

КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ 2

Для того чтобы правильно выполнить задание 2, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы курса английского языка по рекомендованному учебнику:

1. Видо-временные формы глагола: а) активный залога б) пассивный (страдательный) залог. Особенности перевода пассивных конструкций на русский язык.

2. Модальные глаголы: а) выражающие возможность: саn (could)may и эквивалент глагола can-tobeable; б) выражающие долженствование: must и его эквиваленты tohaveto,tobeto

3. Простые неличные формы глагола: Participle 1 (PresentParticiple),ParticipleII (PastParticiple) в функции определения и обстоятельства.Gerund - герундий, простые формы.

4. Определительные и дополнительные придаточные предложения (союзные), придаточные обстоятельственные предложения времени и условия.

5. Интернациональные слова.

Используйте следующие образцы выполнения упражнений.

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ I (к упр. 1)

a)Lobachevsky's Геометрия Лобачевского

geometry had revolutionized произвелакоренноеизменение mathematics and the philosophy вматематикеифилософии

of science. науки.

had revolutionized - Past Perfect Active от глагола to revolutionize.

б) The new laboratory Вчерапослализановым equipment was sent for оборудованиемлаборатории.

yesterday.

was sent for - Past Indefinite Passive отглагола to send

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2 (к упр. II)

1. The changes affect-Изменения,влияющиенаing the composition of составматериалов,называ- materials are called ютсяхимическимиизменения- chemical changes. ми.

Affecting - Participle I – Определение

Called – Participle II, частьглагола-сказуемого

2. Whenheated to the Когда воду нагреваютдо

boiling point water точкикипения,онаиспаряется. evaporates. (или: При нагревании до точки

кипения вода испаряется).

Heated – Participle II, обстоятельство

Boiling – Participle I, определение

3. Heatisradiated Тепло излучается

by the Sun to the Earth. СолнцемнаЗемлю.

Radiated - participleII, составная часть видо-временной формы сказуемого.

ВАРИАНТ I

Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций. (Образец выполнения I).

а) 1. Russian chemical science is successfully solving many complex problems.

2. Radio astronomy has given mankind efficient means for penetration into space.

б) 1. Becquerel's discovery was followed by an intensive research work of Marie and Pierre Curie.

2. Heat energy is transmitted in two different ways.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните ParticipleI и Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. Nylon was the first synthetic fibre used in clothing.

2. The atoms forming our planet are built of negative electrons, positive protons and ordinary neutrons.

3. This kind of treatment when used makes the metals heat-resistant.

4. When passing through an electroscope X-rays cause its discharge.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. One object may be larger than another one, but it may weigh less.

2. Mass can also be defined as a measure of inertia.

3. Man-made satellites had to use solar cells as a source of power.

4. Plastics should be reinforced by different kinds of fibres (to reinforce -усиливать,укреплять).

4. Прочитайте и устно переведите с 1-го по 3-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2-й и 3-й абзацы

HERMAN HELMHOLTZ(1821-1894)

1. Herman Helmholtz is celebrated for his contributions to physiology and theoretical physics. A delicate child, Helmholtz early displayed a passion for understanding things, but otherwise developed slowly, and had no marked early talent for mathematics. Although he wished to study physics, he was persuaded by his father to take up the study of medicine, entering the Medical Institute at Berlin in 1838.

2. His researches into physiological optics began about 1850 with the discovery of the ophthalmoscope (185l), followed by investigations into colour, including the problem of colour-blindness. He also made fundamental contribution to the understanding of the structure and mechanism of the human eye.

3. Helmholtz's first and most celebrated paper in theoretical physics was his article on the conservation of force. In this paper he proved the conservation of total energy of a system of particles which were interacting through central forces depending only on the masses and separations of the particles. Other important work in theoretical physics included the famous paper on vortex motion (1858), and the application to electrodynamical problems.

4. Helmholtz was undoubtedly the most versatile of nineteenth-century scientists. From 1871 onwards he was perhaps more famous as a theoretical physicist than as a physiologist, but it seems probable that apart from his work on the conservation of energy he will ultimately be remembered more for his epoch-making researches in physiological optics and acoustics in which his talents as physiologist, physicist, mathematician and experimentalist of genius were most vividly displayed.

5. Прочитайте 4-й абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

For what researches will Helmholtz be remembered?

1. for his celebrated paper in theoretical physics.

2. for his epoch-making researches in physiological optics, and acoustics.

for his paper on vortex motion.

ВАРИАНТ 2

1. Перепишите следующие предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.

а) 1. Today scientists are still looking for the substance as a source of energy.

2. The Mendeleyev system has served for almost 100 years as a key to discovering new elements.

б) 1. Synthetic rubber products were developed between 1914 and the 1930s.

2. The intensity of this process is influenced by many factors.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения подчеркните Participle I и Participle П и установите функции каждого них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1.Molecular crystals are solids constructed of molecules held together by relatively weak forces.

2. A body moving with certain velocity carries within itself the kinetic energy of motion.

3. While absorbing the energy of cosmic rays the upper atmosphere becomes radioactive.

4. Unless properly treated the metal must not be applied for space technology.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. Energy can exist in many forms and each form can be transformed into the other.

2. The computers should become an internal part of the organization of industrial processes of all types.

3..These metal parts had to be subjected to X-ray examination.

4. The chemists may use the reactor to analyse various substances for their exact composition.

4.Прочитайте и устно переведите с 1-го по 3-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2-й и 3-й абзацы.

D.I. MENDELEYEV (1834-1907)

1. A Russian name appeared in 1964 on the honorary board of science at Bridgeport University, USA: Mendeleyev was added to the list of the greatest geniuses - Euclid, Archimedes, Copernicus, Galilei, Newton and Lavoisier. D.I. Mendeleyev, the explorer of nature, is the greatest chemist of the world. The Mendeleyev system has served for almost 100 years as a key to discovering new elements and it has retained its key capacity until now.

2. D.I. Mendeleyev was the fourteenth and the last child of the Director of the gymnasium at Tobolsk. At 16 he was taken by his mother to St.Petersburg to seek higher education. He entered the Pedagogical Institute where his father has also studied. In 1856 he took a degree in chemistry and in 1859 he was sent abroad for two years for further training. He returned to St.Petersburg in 1861 as Professor of Chemistry.

3. In 1868 Mendeleyev began to write a great textbook of chemistry, known in its English translation as the "Principles of Chemistry". In compiling this, he tried to find some system of classifying the elements - some sixty in all then known - whose properties he was describing. This led him to formulate the Periodic Law, which earned him lasting international fame. He presented it verbally to the Russian Chemi- cal Society in October 1868 and published it in February 1869.

4. In this paper he set out clearly his discovery that if the elements are arranged in order of their atomic weights, chemically related elements appear at regular intervals.

The greatness of Mendeleyev's achievement lies in the fact that he had discovered a generalization that not only unified an enormous amount of existing information but pointed the way to further progress.

5. Прочитайте 4-й абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос.

What can you say about the greatness of Mendeleyev'a discovery?

1. The greatness of Mendeleyev's achievement lies in the fact that his Periodic Table pointed the way to further progress in chemistry.

2. Mendeleyev had discovered several new elements.

3. Mendeleyev created the system of classifying chemical elements.

ВАРИАНТ 3

1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.

а) 1. The reactor is fast becoming a major source of heat and electricity.

2. Scientists have found ways of measuring the size and positions of bodies in the Universe.

б) 1. Elements are transformed into other elements both by man and by nature.

2. The launching of Sputnik was followed by many achievements in science and engineering.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle I и Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. These reactions convert hydrogen into helium, giving off a great amount of light and heat.

2. The formula E=mc deduced by Einstein is perhaps the most well-known equation in the world.

3. Soils containing too much sand or clay are of less value in agriculture.

4. Plastics articles are often difficult to repair if broken.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквиваленты. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. Laser light can be used to transmit power of various types.

2. The application of digital (цифровой) computers should include all forms of automatic control in science and industry.

3. These new materials had to withstand much higher temperatures than metals.

4. Ethylene gas may be obtained by cracking petroleum.

4. Прочитайте и устно переведите с 1-го по 3-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2-й и 3-й абзацы.

LISE MEITNER (1878 - 1968 )

1. In 1938, an Austrian physicist named Lisе Meitner announced the splitting of the atom in the laboratory. That announcement confirmed once again the beginning of the Atomic Age. At that time Lise Meitner was one of the few persons in the world who had a thorough understanding of atomic energy and the uses which could be made of this great power.

2. Lise Meitner, the daughter of a lawyer, was born in Vienna on the 17th of November 1878. She grew interested in science when she read of the Curies discovery of radium. The example of Marie Curie showed that a woman was able to achieve something in science. Lise Meitner became the first woman in the history of the University of Vienna who earned her doctorate in physics.

3. In 1906 she went to the University of Berlin to continue her studies by attending the theoretical lectures of Max Planck and by doing experimental work. Then she began her research in the new field of radioactivity. She focused her attention on the behaviour of beta radiation from radioactive elements, experimenting with the primitive methods then available for measuring and analysing radioactivity. Meitner's work in the 1920s and early 1930s emphasized the physical aspects of radioactivity.

4. In 1938 she left Germany for Sweden. Lise Meitner declined to work on the development of the atom bomb remaining in Sweden throughout the war. She was concerned with the properties of new radioactive isotopes, produced by the cyclo-tron. Her career was illustrious and productive⁵ (she published more than 135 scientific papers), but throughout her life she remained a shy person, with a deep interest in music. Her devotion to science had been total. She never married. In 1960 she moved to Cambridge, England, where she died in 1968.

5. Прочитайте 4-й абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос.

Why can we say that Meltner's career was illustrious and productive?

1. because she was concerned with the study of thermal conductivity in non-homogeneous bodies.

2. because she was measuring and analysing radioactivity.

3. because she published more than 135 scientific papers.

ВАРИАНТ 4

1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.

а) 1. Quantum mechanics has greatly influenced the nuclear theory.

2. The problem of the structure of matter is constantly occupying the minds of many scientists.

б) 1. Today many polymeric materials are produced on a massive scale.

2. Many compounds can be decomposed when they are acted upon by different forms of energy.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle 1 и Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. Natural rubber is a thermoplastic material that becomes soft when heated and hard when cooled.

2. Matter composed of any chemical combination of elements is called a compound.

3. The smallest particle having all the characteristics of an element is called an atom.

4. While bombarding the upper layers of the atmosphere, cosmic rays reach the surface of the earth.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните вкаждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. Heat can be divided into three different types.

2. A great number of plastics should find their applications in the electrical industry.

3. Chemical means had to be used for the separation of compounds into their elements.

4. Thе existence of an X-ray laser in the future may be possible.

4. Прочитайте и устно переведите с 1-го по 3-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2-й и 3-й абзацы.

CH.V. RАМАN (1888-1970)

1. Raman was an Indian physicist, pre-eminent in molecular spectroscopy and acoustics. He created the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1934 and was its president until his death in 1970. He was justly considered the father of Indian science and the Indian Government honoured him with the first of its National Professorships. In 1957 he became an International Lenin Peace Prize Winner.

2. The son of a teacher and lecturer, Raman entered the College in Madras in 1903 and achieved the highest distinctions in the examinations for scientific degrees. As scientific research was at this time almost completely neglected in India, he then entered the Civil Service and was appointed to a position in the Finance Department in 1907. He retained this employment for ten years, mostly in Calcutta. When he was eighteen years old he published his first original optical research in the "Philosophical Magazine". He continued scientific work in his spare time: some thirty papers testified to his ability and energy and helped to make his name familiar to scientists in Europe and America.

3. In 1917 Raman was offered the professorship of physics at the Calcutta University. He occupied the chair from 1917 to 1933. Raman brought to Calcutta many talented young Indians to undertake research into optical phenomena, acous--tics and other branches of physics.

4. During the years in Calcutta Raman emerged as a truly international figure. In 1930 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (for his work on the scattering of light and for discovery of the effect named after him). Raman was honoured by Universities and scientific institutions in Russia, Europe and America as well as in his own country.

5. Прочитайте 4-й абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

Why was Raman honoured by many universities and scientific institutions of different countries?

1. because he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

2. because he brought to Calcutta many young talented Indians.

because of his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of an effect named after him.

ВАРИАНТ 5

1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них глагол-сказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог. Переведите предложения на русский язык, В разделе (б) обратите внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.

а) 1. Astronomers have measured the exact length of the day.

2. Astronomers find that the day is increasing by 0.002 seconds each century.

б) 1. The chemical properties of an element are determined by the orbiting electrons.

2. As a rule one great discovery is generally followed by numerous others.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните ParticipleIParticiple II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. The cloud chamber (камераВильсона) is one of the devices used to detect the presence of radioactivity.

2. Matter consists of one or a number of basic elements occurring in nature.

3. One can use several modern devices while detecting and measuring radioactivity.

4. When heated to a certain temperature, this alloy increases in volume.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол, или его эквивалент; предложения переведите.

1.We can think of heat as a special form of kinetic energy.

2. A computer should solve complicated problems many millions of times faster than a mathematician.

3. New types of plastics had to be obtained for space technology.

4. To measure the vast distances between different planets scientists have to use special instruments.

4. Прочитайте и устно переведите с 1-го по 3-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2-й и 3-й абзацы.

C.F. POWELL (1903-1969)

1. Powell was a prominent English scientist noted for his techniques and discoveries in particle physics. He was also deeply concerned with problems relating to the social responsibility of scientists. Powell was a leader in the World Federation of Scientific Workers in the mid-1950s and was a founder of the Pugwush Conferences on Science and World Affairs in 1957. As a public man and in his published articles Powell stressed the perils of destructive weapons and the need for international cooperation.

2. Powell was born in December 1903 in England. His parents were poor and they were determined to give their children a good education to increase their opportunities for a better life. In 1921 Powell won a scholarship⁵ of one of the colleges at Cambridge which he graduated in 1925 with first-class honours in science. He started his scientific career at the Cavendish laboratory headed by Ernest Rutherford. After gaining his scientific degree at Cambridge in 1928 Powell accepted a position⁶ at the new Physics laboratory in the University of Bristol. Powell spent the rest of his career there advancing to professor in 1948 and director of the laboratory in 1964.

3. In 1947 Powell's Bristol group identified a new particle in the cosmic radiation. Powell and other two scientists discovered the -meson and demonstrated that this sub-nuclear particle was produced directly in nuclear reactions and rapidly decayed in flight, producing the-meson. The discovery solved a complicated scientific problem and helped to open a new era of particle physics.

4. Powell continued to develop and apply the photographic method of Bristol, His laboratory became the source of new experimental discoveries in meson physics and an international training centre for physicists of many countries. In 1950 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his development of the photographic method and his meson discoveries.

5. Прочитайте 4-й абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ' на поставленный вопрос:

For what discovery was Powell awarded the Nobel Prize?

1. for the role he played in the establishment of European Centre for Nuclear Research.

2. for his development of the photographic method and his meson discoveries.

3.for a new technique for detecting high-energy particles.

КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 3

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 1 (к упр. 1)

Present Perfect Passive

The main question hasalreadybeenГлавныйвопросужеоб-discussed.судили.

Present Indefinite Passive.

His scientific work is much Оегонаучнойработе

spokenabout. много говорят.

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2(к упр. II)

1. It is necessary to use the latest Необходимоиспользоватьв means of control in industry. промышленностиновейшие

средстваконтроля.

2. One should agree that experiment Следуетсогласиться,чтотот was of great importance for our re- экспериментимелбольшоезна-search. чениедлявашегоисследования.

3. It is hydrogen that will be the main Именноводородбудетосновным source of energy in the car of the future. нымисточникомэнергиивавто-

мобиле будущего

.

ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 3 (к упр. IV)

1. Whatisthenameofthebookyou Как называется книга, ко-arereading? торуютычитаешь?

2. The region we must explore pos- Район,которыймыдолжны sesses great natural wealth. исследовать, обладает огром-

ными природными ресурсами.

ВАРИАНТ 1

1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого, подчеркните его (см. образец). Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. When much material had been looked through and some problems had been solved, the article was published.

2. Electric cars will be widely used in future.

3. Today plastics are being applied for car bodies (корпусавтомобиля).

4. This lecturer is listened to with great interest.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it,that,one.

1. It is proved that light needs time to travel any distance.

2. One must take part in scientific work.

3. Specialists consider that in future city transport will reject gasoline.

3. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов tobe,tohave,todo.

1. You have to come to the language laboratory of the Institute to work at your pronunciation.

2. This material does not possess elastic properties.

3. Scientists had to create new materials for industry.

4. The exam was to start in the morning.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. We know electricity produces heat.

2. The new materials the Russian chemists developed were used in space technology.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.

1. It is necessary for Russian specialist to know a foreign language.

2. The Russian scientists were the first to construct and launch the space rocket.

3. Our idea was to design a new device for automatic control.

4. To increase the productivity of labour one must use the methods we have just described.

6. Прочтите и устно переведите с 1-го по 3-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 1-й я 2-й абзацы.

THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY TRANSPORT

1. It has been a long time since train velocities first surpassed the 100 km per hour limit and they are now approaching 200 km per hour and even higher velocities in some countries. Is it possible to increase the speed with the help of the traditional wheel at the present stage in the development of transport facilities? Scientists and engineers in various countries have come to the conclusion that a new leap in velocity is possible only if the wheel is replaced with an air or magnetic cushion.

2. In Russia the Electrical Locomotive Engineering Research Institute is the leader in the development of high-speed ground transport. In collaboration with many other Russian research centers, it is carrying out an extensive programme on high-speed ground transport. The advantages of high-speed ground transport to be used in future are obvious. At present air and road transport bums three-fourth of all produced fuels, and the combustion process, naturally, affects the earth's ecology.

3. The future trains must be ecologically clean and noiseless. It has been estimated that the cost of high-speed ground transport will be recouped three times faster than with the railways.

4. The high-speed ground transport will connect cities and industrial centers to airports. The first magnetic suspension train is not yet in operation, but its principle has found a way into technology.

7. Прочтите 4-й абзац текста в вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения; содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

What kind of transport will connect industrial cities to airports?

1. electric trains

2. high-speed ground-transport

3. magnetic - suspensiontrains

ВАРИАНТ 2

1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого и подчеркните его (см. образец). Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. When much had been done in the study of ecology by our institute it became an important scientific center.

2. A curriculum of the new type of secondary school is offered by the Ministry of Education.

3. The research of planets will be developed with the help of cosmic apparatus.

4. This material is unaffected by solar radiation.

2. Перепишете следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it,that,one.

1. It is necessary to find new sources of cheap energy.

2. It was Einstein who came to the conclusion that the electromagnetic field is influenced by the gravitational field.

3. This metro station was opened last year, and that one will be put into operation in two years.

3. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов tobe,tohave,todo.

1.Man had to learn to obtain electric power directly from the Sun.

2. At present most of the industrial enterprises have their own electric power stations.

3. Specialists do not use solar cells in industry as they are too expensive.

4. The engineers are to study the problem of using cosmic rays.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. The methods we have just described are very effective.

2. The instruments our plant produces help to automate production processes.

5. Перепишете следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращай внимание на функцию инфинитива.

1. The teacher told her students to learn the poem by heart.

2. The Russia was the first country to send man into space.

3. To translate a sentence is to discover its meaning.

4. The working people all over the world are uniting to fight the threat of a new war.

6. Прочтите и устно переведите с 1-го по 3-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2-й в 3-й абзацы.

SUN-DRIVEN ENGINE

1. It is common knowledge that certain metals and their alloys are attracted by a magnet. After heating this property vanishes; it is restored after cooling down. A new magneto - heat engine works on this principle. This invention relates to devices which transform thermal power, for instance, the power of the sun rays, into a mechanical power of rotation.

2. We know solar power is inexhaustible and its use does not harm the environment. That's why such importance is attached to the devices which make it possible to apply the idea of direct use of solar power, transforming it into mechanical forms of power. The development of an engine directly driven by a heat source such as solar power, makes it possible to simplify and make power generation considerably cheaper in comparison to the existing thermal engines we use today.

3. The rotor of the new engine is made of an alloy that loses its magnetic properties already at 100° С. If the rotor is heated on one side, the cold side of the rotor will turn toward the magnet. Since heating continues, the rotor goes on rotating, too. Thus solar power can be used as a source of heat in this case. The magneto-heat engine can drive pumps in waterless districts can also be widely used for watering greenery in cities and settlements.

4. By using thermomagnetic alloys it is possible to develop a lot of automatic devices, for example, solar clocks, thermometers, etc. Mention should be made that these devices can withstand extreme temperatures. To organize the production of the necessary alloys is simple as there is no need for rare materials or complex technology.

7. Прочтите- 4-й абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

Why are thermomagnetic alloys used in the production of automatic devices?

1. they resist to acids.

2. they resist to heat.

3. theyresisttopressure.

ВАРИАНТ 3

Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого и подчеркните его (см. образец). Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The radar has been used for the automatic control of ground transport.

2. Today plastics are being widely used instead of metals.

3. The construction of the dam has been completed this month.

4. The alloys were experimented upon in our lab.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it,that.one.

1. It is the number of electrons within the atom that determines the properties of a substance.

2. The territory of Moscow is larger than that of London.

3. In London one must get used to the left-side traffic.

3. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов tobe,tohave,todo.

1. Some substances do not conduct heat.

2. Our plant is to increase the output of consumer goods.

3. Soon our industry will have new and cheap sources of energy.

4. These computers will have to perform millions of operations per second.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

The hostel our students live in is situated not far from the metro station.

2. I think he has made a mistake in his calculations.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.

1. They promised to supply us with the necessary equipment.

2. The purpose of this book is to describe certain properties of metals.

3. The experiment to be carried out is of great importance for our research.

4. To convert chemical energy into electrical energy we must use an electrical cell.

6. Прочтите и устно переведите с 1-го по 4-й абзацы текста. Перепишите и письменно переведите 1, 2 и 3-й абзацы.

WHAT IS A HOVERCRAFT ?

1. Hovercrafts or cushion crafts are vehicles that support themselves a small distance above the ground or water surface on a cushion of air forced downward by vertical fans. Unlike road vehicles and boats, hovercrafts have no physical contact with the surface over which they float and, unlike aircraft, they are incapable of rising above this surface much over a foot or so.

2. As a vehicle the hovercraft requires three or four times as much power as an automobile or truck to operate. The same is true in comparison to boats and ships. On the other hand, cushion crafts require one half to one quarter the power needed to support an airplane or helicopter in flight.

3. Hovercrafts find application in those surface transportation tasks that cannot be done efficiently by automobiles, trucks, buses, trains, or boats. A hovercraft could ferry troops from conventional troopships to the shore at speeds over 60 mph. It would not be obliged to stop at the beach but would continue inland. Hovercrafts are used as ferries, taking passengers, cars and goods to and from the continent. Another application is for inter-island transportation in arctic waters, where winter ice often makes the waterways impassable for ships and where the ice is not solid or smooth enough to permit the passage of trucks or sledges.

4. Hovercrafts are propelled in forward flight by various methods. The most efficient method is propulsion with air propellers, but the rotating propellers may form a serious hazard to passengers and operators. Another method is by tilting the machine as a whole in the direction of intended motion so that a part of the high-pressure becomes available for the forward movement. Sometimes a combination of various methods is used.

7.Прочтите 4-йабзацтекстаивопроскнему.Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

How many methods are there to move the hovercraft forward?

1. only one most efficient method

2. two main methods

3. various methods

ВАРИАНТ 4

1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола сказуемого и подчеркните его (см. образец). Переведитепредложениянарусскиеязык.

1. The automatic equipment is being installed in our shop.

2. Radioactive isotopes have been made in nuclear reactor.

3. The construction of this house will be completed in a month.

4. The engineer was asked about the new technology used at the plant.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it,that,one.

1. The successes of chemistry made it possible to obtain a lot of new materials.

2. One must apply the material that can be machined easily.

3. It is the energy of falling water that is used to drive turbines.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголовtobe,tohave,todo.

1. The operators dealing with radioisotopes must have protective suits.

2. The engineers are to study the problem of using solar energy.

3.Тhе chemical industry is one of the leading branches of our national economy.

4. Russian plants have acquired good reputation abroad.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. I think the drawing will be ready by tomorrow.

2 Every substance a man comes to contact with consists of molecules.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.

1.To design new buildings is the work of an architect.

2.To measure volumes we must know the dimensions of a body.

3. Our plant was the first to install the automatic equipment.

4. Architects have built houses to be heated by solar radiation.

6. Перепишите и устно переведите на русский язык с 1-го по 4-й абзацы текста. Перепишитеиписьменнопереведите 1, 2, 3-йабзацы.

WHAT IS NOISE?

1. No exact definition of "noise" can be given. Because whether we experience sounds as a disturbance or not depends on many things. It is, for example, important to know whether we ourselves cause the noise or whether we have to endure it; whether the noise can be avoided or whether it is unavoidable; whether we are tired or fit. Visitors at a fun-fair enjoy the racket, but people who live close to the fun-fair feel disturbed about it. Passengers in jet-planes accept the din during take-off, but people living close to the airport are disturbed.

2. How strong a noise is and how many sound vibrations there are, is nowa-days internationally expressed in decibels. When you whisper or when leaves rustle there is 10 to 20 decibels. During a normal conversation the noise produced may be about 50 decibels; in crowded streets about 75 or 80 decibels.

3. Our hearing can already be injured when we are exposed to about 85 decibels for a longer period. A group of pop - musicians produce round about 120 decibels and 140 to 160 decibels are produced at the lake-off of a large jumbo-jet plane.

4. During tests on animals it has been proved that noise can be fatal. The Chinese used to torture criminals with noise producing instruments until they dropped dead. Also recently noise has killed human beings directly, damaged buildings, shattered windowpanes, e.g. when a jet passes the sound-barrier.

5.With increasing traffic and expanding industrialization the strain on our ears will certainly increase, too. 1 his will lead to occupational diseases in certain trades, to hardness of hearing, to sleeplessness and such complaints. Therefore we must do everything in our power to protect ourselves against noise.

7. Прочтите 5-й абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

Much noise leads to occupational diseases in certain trades. What must we do?

1. insulation of walls

2. to turn radio and TV low.

3. do everything to protect ourselves against noise.

ВАРИАНТ 5

1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого и подчеркните его (см. образец). Переведитепредложениянарусскийязык.

1. Many 16-storey houses with all modem conveniences are being built in this part of Moscow.

2. The sputniks are used for the research of magnetic fields and cosmic rays.

3. The properties of materials are affected by solar radiation.

4. Scientific and engineering progress opens up wide prospects before man.

2. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it,that,one.

1. It is necessary to obtain accurate data on the possibility of living and working in space.

2. The peoples know that their joint efforts can secure peace in the whole world.

3. We had to find new methods of investigation because the old ones were unsatisfactory.

3. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголовtobe,tohave,todo.

1. A programme for the construction of new types of spaceships is to be carried out this year.

2. We hope that rockets will be used only for peaceful purposes.

3. We had to change the design of this machine.

4. The speed of electrons is almost the same as that of light.

4. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.

1. We know radio and radar systems play a very important role at any airport.

2. The information science gets about other galaxies comes through radio-telescopes.

5. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.

1.The Russian science was the first to make great contribution to the development of space technology.

2. In order to make interplanetary nights in the future it is necessary to know factors affecting the human organism.

3. The main purpose of the computers is to solve complex problems quickly.

6.Прочтитеиустнопереведитенарусскийязыкс 1-гопо 5-йабзацытекста.Перепишитеиписьменнопереведите 2,3 и 5-йабзацы.

LEARNING TO MAINTAIN THE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

1. Approaches to ecology have changed in the West over the past 20 years, moving toward a more responsible use of the environment. This trend is beginning to change things in our country as well. International reaction to the accident with the Komi oil pipeline and the tanker accident near the Shetland islands makes us turn to Western experience.

2. To study the Western experience, a group of ecologists and industrialists from Western Siberia visited the U. S.

3. “It was especially interesting to visit Alaska; Alaska is quite similar to Russia's Tiumen region," said Victor Dolinger, president of the Ecology Committee of Khanty-Mansy district. During the last 30 years Alaska's oil industry used only 0.1 percent of the American territory to provide 25 percent of all U.S. oil output. The technology is simple: a hard icy bolster is built under a bore-hole; this prevents damaging the soil. After work is completed all machinery is dismantled and taken away, leaving the surface ground unharmed. Thus, the ecological balance is maintained.

4. The other good example of an environmentally sound approach could be the Alaska oil pipeline, which is lifted two meters off the ground so that caribou may walk under it.

5. Recently, during the first Russian-American seminar on ecology in Siberia, the director of the Institute of Earth Biosphere, Mr. Melnikov, proposed to the Americans to work out together the concept of a regional, "balanced" development. This involves a region that would be an ecological testing field while opening new industrial areas. The process is ongoing: in Herndon, Virginia, at the Mineral Resources Managing Office, American specialists presented the first drafts of this concept to the visiting Russians.

7. Прочтите 5 абзац текста и вопрос к нему. Из приведенных вариантов ответа укажите номер предложения, содержащего правильный ответ на поставленный вопрос:

What was Mr. Melnikov's proposal?

1. the environmental protection

2. to create a nature-protecting company

3. the concept of a regional, «balanced» development

ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ЧТЕНИЯ

My future profession

The end of school is the start of our independent life and the beginning of the most serious examination we have passed. In order to do well at this examination it is necessary to choose the right road in life which will help us best to live and work for own good and for the benefit of our country. Many broad ways will open before the pupils when they leave a secondary school. Everybody will have a chance to develop and use knowledge and education received during the school years.

There are a lot of different trades and professions, and each one must choose the occupation in which he or she can best develop one's own talent and abilities. Our society needs well-educated people. Nowadays the profession of an economist has become one the most useful, modern and interesting. That is because our country is moving towards market economy and different forms of property are being established. There is a place for an economist at every plant and factory. An economist exercises different functions. He or she can determine the structure of an enterprise and calculate costs as well as probable profits. An economist analyses the condition of the market and prospects for its development in the future. His or her practical use of electronic computers is a must. The activities of an economist at an enterprise range from bookkeeper control the financial state of an enterprise and perform a lot of useful calculations. A manager is an actual administrator. Having a good command of the economic situation in the region and the demands of the market a person with an economist's diploma may establish his own business, or he may become a partner of a joint venture. It is very important for an economist to know a foreign language, especially English.

That is because contracts between our country and many countries of the world are becoming wider with every coming day. Every economist has a chance to go abroad or to deal with foreign businessmen coming to our country. But to become a good economist one must work hard and get not only theoretical knowledge but also great practical skills

Higher Education in Russia

Higher education plays an important part in the life of any country as it provides the country with highly-qualified specialists for future development and progress. It trains people to become teachers, engineers, doctors and other professional workers.

In all the industrial countries standards of living are steadily changing; this means that the kind of education, which was good enough thirty years ago, is not necessarily good for them today. The serious need to find ways and means of ensuring continuous and thorough adoption of the universities to contemporary needs in our rapidly changing world is widely recognized. And this means that styles of teaching, quality of learning materials1 and organization of the university itself have to be continuously brought up to date2and improved.

Besides, knowledge and information which comes through the mass media must also be taken into consideration. This informa​tion explosion3 has affected every field of Study, especially, of course, in the natural and applied sciences and in all other sciences as well. The increase of information requires new methods and new approaches to students' training and instruction4.

At present a new system of education is introduced in this country — a distance education system. This computer system of learning helps working professionals to continue their education while remaining at their jobs. This system enables people to get knowledge and a good foundation in the sciences basic to his or her field of study. Distance learning has developed over years5 from satellite video courses to modern videoconferencing through per​sonal computers.

The academic year usually lasts 9 months and is divided into two terms (semesters). The first- and second-year students obtain thorough instructions in the fundamental sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry and drawing as well as computer engineering and a number of others. The curricula are enriched and broadened6by instructions in such subjects as foreign languages, history and economics.

At the third year students get more advanced knowledge and begin to concentrate on their special interests, so to say, their «major» subject and take many courses in this subject. Specialized study and courses will help students to become specialists and prepare them for their future work.

After four years students will get a bachelor's degree. Then the students may go on with their studies and in a year or two of further study and research get a master's degree. After graduating from the university they may go on with their study and research and may get a still higher degree.

About 75 percent of students receive state grants and 15 percent are sponsored by enterprises. Universities have their own students' hostels and some of them have large and excellent sport centers.

Education is a process through which culture is preserved, knowledge and skills are developed, values are formed, and infor​mation is exchanged.

Education is the way to success.

Cambridge

Cambridge is one of the two main universities of England which is located at the Cam River. It was founded at the beginning of the 12th century. The University consists of (состоитиз) 24 different colleges including 4 colleges for women. Each college is self-governing (самоуправляется).

The head of the University is the chancelor who is elected for life. The teachers are commonly called «dons» and «tutors». Part of the teaching is by means of lectures organized by the University. Besides lectures teaching is carried out by tutorial system for which Cambridge University is famous all over the world. This is a system of individual tuition (обучения) organized by the colleges.

Each student has a tutor who practically guides him through the whole course of studies. The tutor plans the student's work and once a week the student goes to his tutor to discuss his work with him. The training course lasts 4 years. The academic year is divided into 3 terms. The students study natural and technical sciences, law, history, languages, geography and many other subjects.

After three years of study a student may proceed (получитьученуюстепень) to a Bachelor's degree, and later to the degrees of Master and Doctor. Students are required to wear gowns (мантия) at lectures, in the University library, in the street in the evening, for dinners in the colleges and for official visits. All the students must pay for their education, examinations, books, laboratories, univer​sity hostel, the use of libraries, etc. Very few students get grants. Not many children from the working class families are able to get higher education, as the cost is high. The cost of education depends on the college and speciality.

A number of great men, well-known scientists and writers stud​ied at Cambridge. Among them are: Erasmus, the great Dutch scholar, Bacon, the philosopher, Milton and Byron, the poets, Cromwell, the soldier, Newton and Darwin, the scientists.

Higher Education in the USA

There is no national system of higher education in the United States. Higher education is given in colleges and universities. There are over 2100 various higher educational institutions, including colleges, technological institutes and universities. The average col​lege course of study is 4 years. The academic year is usually 9 months or 2 terms (semesters) of four and a half months each. Classes usually begin in September and end in June. The first-year students are called freshmen.

Students choose a major subject (профилирующийпредмет,дисциплина) and take many courses in this subject. After four years, they get a traditional Bachelor's degree. Then the students may go on to graduate school (старшиекурсы) and with a year or two of further study get a Master's degree.

After another year or two of study and research, they may get a still higher degree as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.). The student's progress is evaluated by means of tests, term works and final exami​nations in each course. The student's work is given a mark, usually on a five point scale (5-балльнаясистема). Letters indicate the level of achievement. «A» is the highest mark. «F» denotes a failure.

Most American colleges and universities charge for tuition. The methods of instruction in the universities are lectures, discussions, laboratory and course works and seminars.

Most cities have colleges or universities that hold classes at night as well as in daytime. In this way people may work for a de​gree or just take a course in the subject that interests them.

Education

Most Americans start to school at the age of five when they en​ter kindergarten. Children do not really study at this time. They only attend for half the day and learn what school is like. Children attend elementary school for next six years. They learn to read and write and work with numbers. They also study the world and its people. After they leave elementary school, children go to junior high school for three years and senior high school for another three years. This is called secondary education. In some places the chil​dren go to elementary school for eight years and high school for four. At any rate, elementary and secondary education together take twelve years to complete excluding kindergarten.

In their secondary schooling children get more advanced knowledge and begin to concentrate on their special interests. They usually study further in history, geography, government and Eng​lish language and literature.

They may choose to study foreign languages, advanced mathe​matics or science, such as physics or chemistry. Students who plan to go on to college or professional training must take some of these courses in order to enter college. Other students who do not intend to go on with school may take classes in accounting or typing or other subjects that will help them in the business world. Some se​nior high schools are vocational. Boys may learn to operate ma​chines or do other work. Girls may learn cooking, sewing or office work. High schools have athletic teams which play against teams from other schools. Many boys enjoy playing football, basketball or baseball. These games take place after school hours. Girls are given physical education too, but they do not usually play teams from an​other schools.

In the most places in the US children must attend school until they are sixteen, or until they finish high school, usually at the age of seventeen or eighteen. Some children who are not good students drop out of school at the age of sixteen. This is a growing problem, for it is harder and harder for people to find work when they have not finished their high school education.

Public schools are free for all boys and girls, but some parents prefer to send their children to private schools. Some private schools are connected with churches and children receive religious instruction as well as their regular studies. Other private schools are not religious, but have small classes and very good teachers so that the parents think their children will get a better education there than in the larger classes of the public schools. The private schools do not receive any tax money, so most of them must charge the stu​dents several hundred dollars a year to pay for the cost of the school. Boys and girls attend the public schools together, but many private schools are for girls only or for boys only.

Environment Protection Must Be Global

That the problem of pollution and ecology has become the most important one for mankind is evident to all. The more civilization is developing, the greater the ecological problems are becoming. Air and water pollution by industry is now reaching tremendous proportions. In our era it is changing from a national to an interna​tional problem, especially in territories where rivers cross several countries. The seas and oceans are also becoming seriously polluted. A similar situation is developing in the atmosphere. It is known that many cities throughout the world suffer from air pollution.

However, our scientific knowledge and technological advance​ment make it possible to eliminate it if people use good will1 and make considerable investments for that purpose. The develop​ment of natural resources on a global scale is already possible from a scientific and technical standpoint2. Large-scale experimental work in this area is successfully being carried out.

At present scientists in industrially developed countries are working on the theory of interaction of all the atmospheric and oceanic global processes that determine the climate and weather of the world. Increasing growth of population, industrialization and the use of resources are slowly but surely changing the global climate and water balance. This can be described as a great experi​ment, one that may bring about changes in the environment more serious than ever before.

The essential feature in the environment protection is that many problems can be solved only on the level of world community3. Therefore, the planning of protection against pollu​tion by human society as a whole4 is imperative today and in the near future. It is necessary to develop an international program to study data on land, forest, atmospheric and oceanic resources, both renewable and non-renewable. It is the joint efforts of many scien​tists and special public organizations that can deal with the prob​lem and take necessary measures to protect the environment.

It is still a big job and much remains to be done5. However, sci​entists are confident that planned actions of all countries can elimi​nate pollution and achieve successes in purifying air, water and soil and in safeguarding natural resources. At the same time one must realize that social and political circumstances may stand in the way of further progress in this field.

Pollution

The British, like many other Europeans, are becoming more and more worried (беспокоиться) about their environment. Here are some of the environmental problems that they face.

As the population of large cities like London, Birmingham and Manchester continues to grow, pollution problems become worse.

The air in many towns and cities is being polluted by traffic (транспорт,движение) and industry. The number of cars and lor​ries is growing all the time. On the one hand, they bring mobility to millions of people, but on the other hand, they need bigger, better and more expensive roads, which often ruin the countryside (сельскаяместность). Traffic in cities is getting worse and worse. Water pollution has become a serious problem in many British rivers. People living near airports suffer from the noise of increas​ingly larger and more powerful jet airliners taking off and landing.

Ecological Problems of Big Cities

There are over 150 supercities in the world with population from one to 15 million and more. Tokyo, New York, London, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro and Moscow are just a few of the cities which have become supercities.

People in the supercities suffer from polluted environment: bad water, bad air and noise. A new term, urban (городской) climate, is used now for such cities. It means high temperature, oppressive atmosphere and intensive smog.

Some experts consider that it is practically impossible to pro​tect the big cities from pollution. The World Health Organization (WHO) studied air pollution around the world for over eight years.

It measured two things: the level of sulphur dioxide (S02) in the air and the level of smoke. Sulphur dioxide and smoke pollute water and have serious effect on forest, buildings and health of people.

In the WHO report it is shown that the cities with the most con​siderable level of C02 in the air are Milan, Teheran, Prague, Santi​ago and Sao Paulo. However, some cities with clean air get worse in winter. Helsinki, for example, becomes one of the cities with the largest proportion of it in the air in winter. This must be connected with the heating of houses. One can also mention (упоминать) Glasgow and Warsaw which suffer in the same way.

London, its History and Development

It is known that the area around London was inhabited (населять) by the Celts. Later the Romans founded a military camp there. The camp developed into a port. The area of about 1 square mile where the Romans built their fortifications corre​sponds approximately to today present City of London. London was the capital of one of the Roman provinces of Britain. After the Romans left Britain, London became less important and suffered greatly from the Danes and Vikings. It was under Henry the First in the 12th century that London finally became the capital of England. In the 16th century London, with its 500,000 inhabit​ants, was the largest city in England. Under Queen Elizabeth the First in the 17th century England dominated the oceans and be​came the Empire. It is in the Elizabethan Age that art, culture and literature flowered, especially in London. Over the centuries Lon​don became the centre of a constantly growing empire. The em​pire reached its apex (вершина) under Queen Victoria. In​dustrialization and the expansion of international trade brought London power, growth and cultural and economic development. In the First and Second World Wars London was ruined consider​ably.

Some 9 million people now live in London and its suburbs, and the city covers an area of 620 square miles, making it one of the largest of the world's capitals. One reason for its size is that the English people like to live in small houses and have small gardens. As a result, less than 5,000 people live in the City of London, while more than half a million come here to work in the daytime. Today London is the capital of Great Britain and is also the seat of the Royal Family, the Parliament, the major administrative bodies and scientific institutions.

The Houses of Parliament stand on the bank of the Thames at Westminster Abbey. Actually it is one building but it is called «Houses» as it consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It was set up in the 13-th century. At one end of the Houses of Parliament there is a tower with a large clock. The largest bell, known as Big Ben, chimes in (отбиватьчасы) the hour.

Westminster Abbey was a monastery built in the 8th century. It is one of the best examples of the Early English architecture. The kings and queens of England are buried there. Many great states​men, writers and poets are also buried there.

In the centre of London there is one of the most beautiful squares — Trafalgar Square which was named so to commemorate (вчесть) Nelson's victory in the battle of Trafalgar. There is the monument in its centre known as Nelson's Column.

In the vicinity of Trafalgar Square is Whitehall which is now a street of government offices. Not far from Whitehall is Downing Street. Number 10 Downing Street is the residence of the Prime Minister of England. The Cabinet meets there. One must mention the British Museum. It is one of the most extensive and valuable museums in West Europe, It was founded in 1753. It also com​prises the National Library. There are other numerous museums and galleries displaying interesting finds from all parts of the world and from all stages in the development of nature, man and art. There are also two large opera houses, the National Theatre and 50 other theatres. Monuments of past greatness are every​where in London.

The Trees Fell — So Did the People

Early civilisations may have killed themselves off by plundering (хищническиуничтожать) local plants and animals. New archeo-logical findings suggest that far from living in perfect harmony with nature, prehistoric civilisation dealt major and sometimes fatal blow to natural surroundings. Many investigators now question the idea that environmental problems began only with the industrial revolution in the 19th century.

Long before the appearance of industrial civilization prehistoric societies were destroying (уничтожать) forests, plants, animals and farmland. Such destruction sometimes destroyed them in turn.

The mysterious disappearance of Anasasi Indians may be a dra​matic example of this. In territories that are now New Mexico and Arizona the Indians built a complex of roads, irrigation systems and giant «houses» with 800 rooms and more. All were abruptly left by them around A.D. 1200. Until now, the majority of archeologists have believed that the reason was a prolonged drought (засуха), but by using an electron microscope to analyze the tree rings Amer​ican scientists found that over two centuries or so the Indians were systematically deforesting the canyon where they lived until the forests' ability to replenish itself was destroyed.

Some Words About Words

With about 200,000 words in current usage English is generally regarded as the richest of the world's languages. Few other lan​guages can match this word power. Chinese comes close. German has a vocabulary of only 184,000 words, and French has fewer than 100,000 words.

English owes its exceptionally large vocabulary to its ability to borrow and absorb words from outside. Atomic, jeans, khaki, sput​nik, perestroika, glasnost are just a few of the many words that have come into use during this century. They have been taken or adopted from Italian, Hindi, Creek and Russian. The process of borrowing words from other languages has been going on for more than 1,000 years. When the Normans crossed over from France to conquer England in 1066, most of the English spoke old English or Anglo-Saxon — a language of about 30,000 words. The Normans spoke a language which was a mixture of Latin and French. It took about three centuries for the language to become one that is the an​cestor of the English they speak today. The Normans gave us words such as «city», and «palace». The Anglo-Saxon gave us «ring and town».

Latin and Greek have been a fruitful source of vocabulary since the 16th century. The Latin word «mini», its opposite «maxi» and the Greek word «micro» have become popular adjectives to de​scribe everything from bikes to fashion.

Electricity

It is impossible to imagine our civilization without electricity: economic and social progress will be turned to the past and our daily lives completely transformed.

Electrical power has become universal. Thousands of applica​tions of electricity such as lighting, electrochemistry and electro​metallurgy are longstanding and unquestionable.

With the appearance of the electrical motor, power cables re​placed transmission shafts, gear wheels, belts and pulleys in the 19-th century workshops. And in the home a whole range of various time and labour saving appliances have become a part of our ev​eryday lives.

Other devices are based on specific properties of electricity: electrostatics in the case of photocopying machine and electromag-netism in the case of radar and television. These applications have made electricity most widely used.

The first industrial application was in the silver workshops in Paris. The generator — a new compact source of electricity — was also developed there. The generator replaced the batteries and other devices that had been used before.

Electric lighting came into wide use at the end of the last cen​tury with the development of the electric lamp by Thomas Edison. Then the transformer was invented, the first electric lines and net​works were set up, dynamos and induction motors were designed.

Since the beginning of the 20th century the successful develop​ment of electricity has begun throughout the industrial world. The consumption of electricity has doubled every ten years.

Today consumption of electricity per capita is an indicator of the state of development and economic health of a nation. Elec​tricity has replaced other sources of energy as it has been realized that it offers improved service and reduced cost.

One of the greatest advantages of electricity is that it is clean, easily-regulated and generates no by-products. Applications of electricity now cover all fields of human activity from house wash​ing machines to the latest laser devices. Electricity is the efficient source of some of the most recent technological advances such as the laser and electron beams. Truly electricity provides mankind with the energy of the future.

A Great Citizen of the World

Every day many people visited Thomas A. Edison's laboratories in Orange, New Jersey. Some of them were young inventors who went to study, but many more of them were tourists. They came from all parts of the US and from other countries as well.

One day a very important citizen from England visited Edison's factories, taking with him his young son, eight years old. They spent many hours in great workshops, looking at hundreds of useful in​ventions.

Before leaving the laboratories the man went to the office of the main building. Giving his card to the person in charge, he asked: «Мау I speak to Mr. Edison, please?». The man looked at the card and then answered: «Wait a minute, I'll see». Soon he returned and said: «Соте this way, please. Mr. Edison will see you».

The father and his son went into the great inventor's workroom. «Mr. Edison», said the Englishman, «I brought my young son here to see what the world's greatest citizen has done. I want this day to help him all his life. Will you please shake hands with him and say something that he will remember?»

Mr. Edison took the boy's hand. He laid his other hand on the child's shoulder and looked into his eyes. «My boy», he said, «don't watch the clock».

In 1928 Mr. Edison was eighty-one years old, but he still worked sixteen hours a day.

Solar Light by Night

Most people living in towns consider it a usual thing that streets are lit at night. But street lights need a power supply (источникэнергии) therefore distant areas with no source of electricity re​main in darkness until the sun comes up again.

With new appliances now offered by several British firms, many distant places could be lit with solar-powered street lights. It may seem strange that the lamps can use the power of the sun which shines by day when the lamps are needed at night, but they work by using energy accumulated during the day from a solar panel. The solar panel produces electricity which charges (заряжать) a bat​tery. When the sun goes down, the battery power is then used for lighting. Each lamp has its own panel so the system can be used for one individual light or a number of them.

In the south of Saudi Arabia a motorway tunnel miles from any power supply is lit day and night by solar-powered devices. The so​lar panels provide power during the day and charge batteries which accumulate enough power to light the tunnel at night. The genera​tion of electricity by batteries is still expensive but the advantage of sun-powered lamps is that they can bring light to areas distant from any other power supply.

There is one more advantage of solar power: not only it is un​limited, but also its use does not pollute the environment. That is why it is very important to develop devices which make it possible to transform solar power into mechanical or electric forms of power.

Non-traditional Renewable Sources of Energy

It is known that much is being done in the world today for the development of non-traditional sources of energy. Without them the Earth cannot support its present population of 5 billion people and probably 8 billion people in the 21st century.

Now we are using traditional power sources, that is, oil, natural gas, coal and water power with the consumption of more than 50 billion barrels per year. It is evident that these sources are not un​limited.

That is why it is so important to use such renewable sources of energy as the sun, wind, geothermal energy and others. Research is being carried out in these fields.

One of the most promising (перспективный) research is the development of power stations with direct transformation of solar energy into electricity on the basis of photo-effect. It was Russia that was the first in the world to develop and test a photoelectric battery of 32,000 volts and effective area of only 0.5 sq.m., which made it possible to concentrate solar radiation. This idea is now be​ing intensively developed in many countries.

However, the efficiency of a solar power station is considerably reduced because of the limited time of its work during the year. But it is possible to improve the efficiency of solar power stations by de​veloping different combinations of solar power stations and tradi​tional ones — thermal, atomic and hydraulic. Today some engineers are working at the problem of developing electric power stations with the use of a thermal-chemical cycle. It will operate on products of the transformation of solar energy, whereas the «solar» chemical reactor uses C02 and water steam of the thermal power station. The result is that we have a closed cycle.

In Kamchatka there are geothermal power stations operating on hot water-steam mixture from the depths of about a kilometre. In some projects water will be heated by the warmth of mountains at a depth of four—five km.

It is planned that plants working on the energy of the solar heat provided by the sun will be built on a larger scale.

That different wind energy plants are being developed is also well-known. These energy plants can be small (of several kilowatts) and large powerful systems.

It is important that all these advances in developing new sources of energy and improving the old ones help to solve the en​ergy problem as a whole and they do not have negative effects on the environment.

Nuclear Power? Well, Yes

Although nuclear reactors have generated electricity commer​cially for more than 40 years and nearly 400 now in operation, two major accidents — in the US in 1979 and Chernobyl in the USSR in 1986 — have put the industry under a radioactive cloud. In the popular imagination, reactors are nuclear bombs; even if they don't explode, they go on accumulating waste that will finally cause a global catastrophe.

As a result, an energy source once considered as the fuel of the future became questionable. But not everywhere. Nuclear power provides nearly a quarter of the electricity generated in the indus​trialized Western world by the 24-member countries of the Organi​zation for Economic Cooperation and Development. In France more than 76 % of electric power is nuclear-generated, in Belgium — 62 %, Sweden — 50 %, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and Fin​land come in at one third, Japan — a little less; Britain, the US and Canada — under 20 %. Some countries have no nuclear power plants at all and don't want any.

Not only the strong emotions of fear have worked against nu​clear power. Energy demand grew more slowly than expected in the past decade. Prices of oil and coal have reduced. However, energy prices can rise. Moreover, supplies of fossil fuel are limited, while energy needs and tide (прилив) can't meet the increasing require​ments. Besides, nuclear power doesn't add to global warming.

All this causes the people to believe that the world can't live and work without nuclear power.

Television

By the end of 1980s television has moved to a new and the most important stage in its development since the appearance of colour television. Technically it is called high-definition television (HDTV) or Hi-Vision. This is the much higher resolution tele​vision of the 21st century. This revolution was started by Japanese manufacturers when they developed a new video system with a pic​ture resembling a wide-screen film more than traditional television. The new system increases the screen's width-to-height ratio(16:9). The result is a picture several times sharper than in the exist​ing TV sets. Besides, recent developments in plasma display panel technology make HDTV commercially practicable. The plasma display makes it possible to produce a large, bright, colour, flat TV screen so thin and light that it can also be hung on a wall like a framed picture. The engineering problem that has existed almost since the first days of television may be solved now.

Television

The television set is evidently the most important and popular electronic product of all time. All homes in developed countries have one or more TV sets and in many countries there are consider​ably more TV sets than telephones.

But in 1939 at the World's Fair in New York a tiny nine-by-twelve inch box was the centre of attention for hundreds of people. They were the first to see a television set in action. Compared to to​day's TV shows of underwater and outer-space research, those first black-white pictures were not very good. The pictures were only transmitted from one side of the Fair territory to the other. But in 1939 they were of historical importance.

Within a few days the news of television spread throughout the world. A lot of people wanted to have a look at the new invention. Everyone was interested in it. But only few people owned television sets in the next few years. When World War II broke out electronic factories that began the TV production stopped making them and started making war materials instead. When the war was over, TV sets began coming off factory assembly lines. By 1958 there were millions of them.

In a surprisingly short time people watched fewer films and turned from newspapers and magazines to TV. In its short history television has had great influence on people's life and way of think​ing. Rocket-launching, concerts and football and tennis matches can be seen direct as they occur. The boundaries of time and space have disappeared.

At present TV communication is provided with the help of a system of artificial earth satellites so that people living in different parts of the country and all over the world and in different time zones are able to watch the central TV programs at the most conve​nient hours.

Nowadays many countries also have cable TV, a system using wires for the transmission of television programs (like telephone calls). Cable television first appeared in 1949 as a means of trans​mitting TV signals to rural and mountain areas far from big cities. Cable television's next big step forward was made by the mid — 1980s. Scientists announced that many technical problems had been solved and in the future it would be possible via satellite and cable TV to use more channels on a TV set at every home in the world.

Then we saw how a new technical invention, colour television, was rapidly replacing black-and-white television. Recently it was reported that the first pocket-size3 colour television set had been developed. It was stated that a liquid-crystal display was used sim​ilar to those on calculators and watches and that it weighed less than a pound.

A few years ago it became evident that the next major advance for TV would be digital television. In a digital system the usual con​tinuous signal is replaced by a digital code containing detailed in​formation on brightness, colour, etc. A digital TV set hangs on the wall like a picture. Essentially, it is a minicomputer with a visual display. Once a week you put the programs you like into the memory, and the TV set will automatically switch on the desired channel at the right time. You can watch several programs simulta​neously on miniscreens and then produce one of them in full for​mat. Also, the TV set can automatically video-record the programs when you are absent or occupied.

Telegraph

Benjamin Franklin, an American who is famous for his inter​esting and useful inventions, published his ideas about electricity in 1752. Scientists in many countries became interested in this won​derful form of energy. They wanted to find the answer to a very im​portant question: could the electricity be used to develop a fast, efficient system of long-distance communication? Experiments proved that electricity could travel instantly over a very long piece of wire. But a note that was written on a piece of paper couldn't be put into a wire. How could electricity be used to send a message? A Danish scientist discovered that electricity could move a needle from left to right and that the needle could be pointed at letters on a piece of paper. Then a German government worker made up a code system that could be used with an electric needle. In 1837 two English scientists sent a message by electric telegraph for a distance of more than 1.6 kilometers.

Samuel Morse, an American portrait painter, was experiment​ing with an electric telegraph too. At first he connected a pencil to an electric wire. When the electricity came through the wire the pencil made wavy lines. Then Morse invented a code that used dots and dashes for the letters of the alphabet. Finally, he discovered that telegraph messages did not have to be written, they could be sent in sound.

On May 24, 1844, the first long-distance message was sent by telegraph for 64 kilometers.

Telegraph companies were formed in many cities. By 1861 tele​graph wires stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In Europe too, Samuel Morse's system became popular.

But telegraph wires couldn't be hung over an ocean. Messages to and from Europe had to be sent by ship — a journey of two or three weeks. A new method was needed.

The Atlantic Telegraph Company which was organized in 1856 wanted to try to lay a cable on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. The 4,000-kilometer cable broke three times. Each time a new cable had to be made. Finally, on July 27, 1866, the first transatlantic message was sent from Newfoundland to Ireland.

Later cables were laid to Central and South America. After 1900 transpacific cables were laid to Asia and Australia. At last news and business information could be sent instantly to almost every country in the world.

Telephone

Alexander Graham Bell never planned to be an inventor, he wanted to be a musician or a teacher of deaf people (глухих). The subjects that he studied at school included music, art, literature, Latin and Greek. They did not include German which all scientists used in their books. Alexander's mother was a painter and a musi​cian. His father was a well-known teacher of deaf people.

When Alexander was only sixteen, he became a teacher in boy's school in Scotland. He liked teaching there, but he still wanted to become a teacher of deaf people as his father.

He read all the books about sound that he could find and started to work on some of his own experiments.

At twenty five Alexander became interested in finding a way to send human voice through an electric wire. The parents of his pu​pils contributed money for the equipment. He found an assistant, Tom Watson, who worked in an electrical shop. For two years Tom and Alexander were working together to build a machine that peo​ple could use to talk to one another over long distances. After two years, the two young men were becoming discouraged (опустилисьруки). Then, one day, when they were working on a new transmit​ter Alexander spilled some acid (пролитькислоту) on himself. Tom Watson, who was alone in another room, heard a voice. The voice was coming through a wire to a receiver on the table! The voice was Alexander Bell's! It was saying: «Соте here, Mr. Wat​son. I need you!»

The first telephone line was built in Germany in 1877. By 1915 a telephone line was opened in the United States — 5,440 kilome​ters from New York to San Francisco.

Now design bureaus all over the world are conducting experi​ments to develop video-phone or picture phone. A young man in Moscow wants to speak to his friend in Vladivostok. He lifts his telephone receiver, dials a number. After a very short time his friend answers. As he picks up his receiver, his picture appears on the screen. They can speak to each other face to face because they are using a new kind of telephone which may be called «a video-phone». In addition to the usual telephone, the equipment includes a small television screen (14 cm by 13 cm) and, combined with the screen, a television camera. The camera tube will allow the user to switch from a wide view of the room to the face of the per​son speaking. The focus can be changed to give clear pictures of objects 0.3,0.9 and 6.0 meters away from the camera. There is also a mirror attachment, which allows the camera to scan documents which may be lying on the table. The camera adjusts itself auto​matically to different lighting conditions.

Talking via Space

Communication has come a long way from the time when an In​dian beat a drum (барабан) in the forest to the time when a scientist receives messages from a satellite. In this space age communication has become a highly developed field. The system of communica​tion in large countries is unthinkable today without space satellites. Besides large distances, there is a great time difference: the territo​ries of some countries comprise up to 11 zones. Satellites help to minimize all the difficulties that may appear. They rapidly transmit TV and radio programs to different towns, cities, and distant areas.

Space systems and electronic technology have made it possible to set up an automatic system of communication designed for rapid transmission of all kinds of information.

People write letters and send telegrams. But at the same time people living in various cities like to exchange (обмениваться) news on the telephone. Statistics reports that the number of long​distance telephone calls is about 2, 000 million per year. A person in Moscow talking on the phone with Vladivostok must know that this conversation is carried on through a satellite.

Trains and cars can use mobile radio telephones to make calls. Businessmen can use fax machines which provide electronic trans​mission of documents and messages over telephone lines. Even photographs can be sent and received over telephone wires.

Practically all the population in large countries can watch TV via satellites. The orbital communication systems make it possible for people from different continents to see and hear one another.

The importance of space means of communication is increasing every year. The communication satellites of the international orga​nization «INTERSAT» enable people to keep reliable telephone, telegraph, telex and fax communication in any weather with ships practically in every part of the World Ocean.

Telecommunication

A group of people enter a room, the lights go down, the screens come... the videoconference is under way.

Tomorrow's scientific fiction has become today's new technol​ogy -a daily reality for global companies who recognise the impor​tance of regular communication between groups of people in different locations around the world.

Essentially the videoconference room resembles a usual confer​ence room. Delegates sit along one side of a table facing their col​leagues on screen on the other side. They can see, hear and talk to each other simultaneously and can present slides of diagrams, even pieces of equipment. The technology is relatively simple. A device called videocodec takes the picture, digitalizes it for transmission over a special network and reforms the picture at the other end.

The problem today is to manufacture codec to the new interna​tional standard and to improve picture quality through faster trans​mission speeds. Research and development is also focusing on mobile videoconferencing with broadcast quality pictures which enable to have instant communication with colleagues around the world.

There is no doubt about the effectiveness of videoconferencing, as the videoconference eliminates the working time lost through travel.

The First Travelling Post Office

The first travelling post office in the United States was Abra​ham Lincoln's hat. That was a strange place, indeed, for mail; but that is where it was kept. Lincoln was appointed postmaster of New Salem, a small Western town, about the year 1833. The postman visited the place once a week and brought the mail — a dozen let​ters, perhaps, and two or three newspapers — in his saddle (седло) bags. He was always met by Postmaster Lincoln who put the letters into his hat for safekeeping. Lincoln was also the clerk in the coun​try store, so he had a good opportunity to distribute the mail. But if people did not come for it, he put on his hat and delivered it. So New Salem was the first town in the US to have rural free delivery, even though the postmaster received very small pay for his work. At that time, stamps and envelopes were not used. When the sender of a letter paid the postal charges, the postmaster wrote PAID in the large letters on the face of the letter. But the postal rates were so high that the sender seldom paid them. Thus, the mailing charges were usually collected from the person who received the mail. The postmaster always held his postal receipts until a government rep​resentative came for them.

The Internet

The Internet is a magnificent global network with millions and millions of computers and people connected to one another where each day people worldwide exchange an immeasurable amount of information, electronic mail, news, resources and, more impor​tant, ideas.

It has grown at a surprising rate. Almost everyone has heard about it and an increasing number of people use it regularly. The current estimate is that over 70 million people are connected, in some way, to the Internet — whether they know it or not.

With a few touches at a keyboard a person can get access to ma​terials in almost everywhere. One can have access to full-text news​papers, magazines, journals, reference works, and even books. The Web is one of the best resources for up-to-date information. It is a hypertext-based system by which you can navigate through the Internet. Hypertext is the text that contains links to other docu​ments. A special program known as «browser» can help you find news, pictures, virtual museums, electronic magazines, etc. and print Web pages. You can also click on keywords or buttons that take you to other pages or other Web sites. This is possible because browsers understand hypertext markup language or code, a set of commands to indicate how a Web page is formatted and displayed.

Internet Video conferencing programs enable users to talk to and see each other, exchange textual and graphical information, and collaborate.

Internet TV sets allow you to surf the Web and have e-mail while you are watching TV, or vice versa. Imagine watching a film on TV and simultaneously accessing a Web site where you get in​formation on the actors of the film. The next generation of Internet-enabled televisions will incorporate a smart-card for home shopping, banking and other interactive services. Internet-enabled TV means a TV set used as an Internet device.

The Internet is a good example of a wide area network (WAN). For long-distance or worldwide communications, computers are usually connected into a wide area network to form a single inte​grated network. Networks can be linked together by telephone lines or fibre-optic cables. Modern telecommunication systems use fi​bre-optic cables because they offer considerable advantages. The cables require little physical space, they are safe as they don't carry electricity, and they avoid electromagnetic interference.

Networks on different continents can also be connected via sat​ellites. Computers are connected by means of a modem to ordinary telephone lines or fibre-optic cables, which are linked to a dish ae​rial. Communication satellites receive and send signals on a trans​continental scale.

Made in Space

This label «Made in Space» for industrial materials will proba​bly surprise no one in the not so distant future. They may include superconductors, new kinds of alloys, substances with peculiar magnetic properties, supertransparent laser glass1, polymers, plas​tics, and so on. Numerous experiments carried out at the Russian orbital space stations have paved the way2 to the development of methods and means of industrial production of new materials of better quality on board a spacecraft3. Experts estimate that within a few coming years industrial production of various materials will be started in space.

Conditions on board a space vehicle orbiting Earth greatly dif​fer from those on its surface. However, all of these conditions can be simulated4 on Earth, except for one — prolonged weightless​ness. Weightlessness can be created on Earth, but only for a few seconds. A space flight is another matter: a satellite orbiting Earth is in a dynamic zero-gravity state, i.e., when gravity is cancelled out5 by inertia.

What can weightlessness be used for? Many well-known pro​cesses go on differently due to the absence of weight. The Archime​des principle is no longer valid and, consequently, stable-state6liquid mixtures can be obtained, the components of which would immediately separate on Earth because of different density. In case of melts7 of metals, glasses or semiconductors, they can be cooled down to the solidification point even in space and then brought back to Earth. Such materials will possess quite unusual qualities.

In space there is no gravitational convection8, i.e., movements of gases or liquids caused by difference of temperatures. It is well-known that various defects in semiconductors occur because of convection. Biochemists also have to deal with the worst aspects of convection, for example, in the production of superpure biologi​cally active substances. Convection makes it very difficult on Earth.

Following the launch of the first orbital stations the specialists started experiments aimed at proving the advantages of the zero-gravity state for the production of certain materials. In this country all orbital stations from Salyut 5 onwards were used for that purpose, as well as rockets. Since 1976 over 600 technological experiments have been carried out on board manned and un​manned space vehicles.

The experiments proved that many of the properties of the ma​terials obtained under the zero-gravity condition were much better than those produced on Earth. Besides, it has been established that it is necessary to develop a new science — physics of the weightless state — which forms the theoretical basis for space industry and space materials study. This science has basically been developed. The methods of mathematical modelling of the hydromechanical process under the zero-gravity condition have been created with the help of computers.

Special space vehicles will also be needed for industrial produc​tion of new-generation materials. Research has shown that the ac​celeration rate on board these vehicles must be reduced to the minimum. It was found that space platforms in independent flight carrying the equipment were most suitable for producing materials. These vehicles will have to use their own propulsion systems to ap​proach their base orbital station after a certain period of time.

The British Museum

The British Museum consisting of the National Museum of Ar​cheology and Ethnography and the National Library is the largest and richest of its kind in the world. Built in the middle of the last century it is situated in central London which consists of quiet squares and streets.

The British Museum was founded by Act of Parliament in 1753 to bring together the collection of Sir Robert Cotton, some others and future addition to them.

Anthony Panizzi designed the famous circular Reading Room at the British Museum. The first thing that strikes a visitor on en​tering the Reading Room is its unusual shape. It is a perfect circle. The superintendent (управляющий) and his assistant sit in the centre of the room and they issue (выдавать) and collect books. Long rows of reading desks radiate to the outer walls, like the spokes (спицы) of the wheel.

Many famous people have used the Reading Room at the Brit​ish Museum. Of the many distinguished people who have used the Reading Room no one was perhaps more regular and more intent (целеустремленный) than the German philosopher and socialist Karl Marx. Soon after he arrived in England in 1849, Marx became a daily visitor of the Reading Room, where he used to remain from nine in the morning till closing time.

The British Museum has a department of ethnography. Ethnog​raphy is concerned with primitive people and their cultures in vari​ous stages of development as revealed by their tools, ritual objects and various crafts (ремесло). This collection is so vast that only a tiny percentage is on show to the general public. Then there is a de​partment of prints and drawings. There are also departments devoted to maps, coins and medals. Visitors interested in chronology can see a large collection of clocks and watches. Those who are interested in philately can find a magnificent collection of postage stamps.

Transport for Tomorrow

One thing is certain about the public transport of the future: it must be more efficient than it is today. The time is coming when it will be quicker to fly across the Atlantic to New York than to travel from home to office. The two main problems are: what vehicle shall we use and how can we plan our use of it?

There are already some modern vehicles which are not yet in common use, but which may become a usual means of transport in the future. One of these is the small electric car: we go out into the street, find an empty car, get into it, drive to our destination, get out and leave the car for the next person who comes along. In fact, there may be no need to drive these cars. With an automatic guid​ance system for cars being developed, it will be possible for us to se​lect our destination just as today we select a telephone number, and our car will move automatically to the address we want.

For long journeys in private cars one can also use an automatic guidance system. Arriving at the motorway, a driver will select the lane1 he wishes to use, switch over to automatic driving, and then relax — dream, read the newspaper, have a meal, flirt with his pas​senger — while the car does the work for him. Unbelievable? It is already possible. Just as in many ships and aircraft today we are pi​loted automatically for the greater part of the journey, so in the fu​ture we can also have this luxury in our own cars.

A decade ago, the only thing electronic on most automobiles was the radio. But at present sophisticated electronics is playing a big part in current automotive research. For example, in every gasoline-powered2 car that General Motors Corporation makes there is a small computer continuously monitoring the exhaust. The device, about the size of a pack of cigarettes, adjusts the vehi​cle carburetor fuel intake3 to get the best fuel economy. Ford cars are equipped with an electronic instrument panel that, among other things4, will calculate how far one can drive on the fuel left in the tank. It will also estimate the time of arrival at destination and tell the driver what speed he has averaged5 since turning on the ignition.

According to specialists these features made possible by micro​electronics are only the beginning. Radar may control the brakes to avoid collisions, and a display screen may show the car's position on the road. Recently a radar to be mounted on lorries and cars has been designed in the USA. The radar aerial looks like a third head​light placed directly above the bumper. Having summed up the in​formation about the speed and distance of various objects ahead, the computer detects all possible dangers and their nature. A third com​ponent in the system is a monitor on the instrument panel. The radar only observes objects ahead of the vehicle. It is automatically turned on when the speed exceeds ten miles an hour. The green light on the panel indicates that the system is on. The yellow light warns of sta​tionary objects ahead, or something moving slower than the car. The red light and buzzer warn that the speed should go down. Another red light and sound signal make the driver apply the brakes.

A Japanese company is designing a car of a new generation. When completed, the new model will have a lot of unusual charac​teristics. The car's four-wheel control system will ensure move​ment diagonally and even sideways, like a crab, at right angles to the longitudinal axis. This is especially important when leaving the car in parking places. To help the driver get information while con​centrating on the road, the most important data will be projected on the wind screen. A tourist travelling in such a car will not lose his way even in Sahara with its impassable roads: a navigation Earth satellite will indicate the route.

A new ceramic engine has been developed in Japan. Many im​portant parts as pistons, pressure rings6, valves and some others have been made of various ceramic materials, piston rings7 made of silicon materials being in many respects better than those of steel. They withstand temperatures up to 1,000 °C. Therefore, the engine does not need a cooling system.

СПИСОК ИСРОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ

Агабекян И.П. Английский язык для средних специальных заведений. Серия «Учебники и учебные пособия». Ростов н/Д: «Феникс», 2005.

Английский язык для средних профессиональных учебных заведений: Учебник/ Л.И.Кравцова.- М.:Высшая школа, 2003.

Блинова С.И., Чарекова Е.П., Чернышева Г.С., Синицкая Е.И.Практика английского языка. Сборник упражнений по грамматике. Санкт-Петербург, 1998.

О.П. Проверь себя: Тесты по английскому языку.- М.: АСТ-ПРЕСС, 1999.

Немыкина А.И. 120 устных тем по английскому языку. Сборник заданий и упражнений./- М.: Аквариум, 1998.

Португалов В.Д. Учебник по английскому языку.ECONOMICS. М.: ООО «Фирма «Изд-во АСТ», 1999.

Учебник английского языка для студентов технических университетов и вузов: И.В.Орловская, Л.С.Самсонова, А.И.Скубриева.- М.,МГТУ им. Н.Э.Баумана, 2002.

Интернет – ресурсы:

Артикли в английской грамматике (Режим доступа) - http://www.englishouse.ru/2.English_grammar/grammarenglish_gtest_easy_1_articles.html - Вход свободный

Всё о Великобритании (Режим доступа) - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain - Вход свободный

Всё о Рождестве (Режим доступа) -http://www.allthingschristmas.com/traditions/christmas-usa.php Вход свободный -

Всё о Соединённых Штатах Америки (Режим доступа) - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA - Вход свободный

Множественное число существительных (Режим доступа) - http://www.englishouse.ru/2.English_grammar/grammarenglish_gtest_easy_2_plural.html Вход свободный -

Рождество в Великобритании (Режим доступа) - http://www.crewsnest.vispa.com/journeyusa.htm Вход свободный -

Рождество в США (Режим доступа) -http://www.christmasintheusa.com/ - Вход свободный

Адрес публикации: https://www.prodlenka.org/metodicheskie-razrabotki/380671-metodicheskie-ukazanija-i-kontrolnye-raboty-p