Great Britain

PREFACE

A GENERAL SURWAY OF THE COUNTRY

THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE COUNTRY

THE ECONOMY OF GREAT BRITAN

BRITISH STATE SYSTEM

ELECTORAL SYSTEM

EDUCATION IN BRITAIN

SOCIAL SECURITY

FAMOUS MEN OF ART

APENDIX

COUNTIES Of THE UNITE KINGDOM

THE UNION JACK

the school system

STUDENT'S LIFE

THE MAP

ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННАЯЛИТЕРАТУРА

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UNIT I

GENERAL SURWAY OF THE COUNTRY

Many foreigners say "England" and "English" when theymean "Britain", or the "UK", and "British". This is very annoying for the 5 million people who live in Scotland, the 2.8 million in Wales and 1.5 million in Northern Ireland who are certainly not English. (46 million people live in England.) However, the people from Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and England are all British.

The United Kingdom is an abbreviation of "the United King­dom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".The country is situated in Western Europe, on the British Iles. It is often furtherabbreviated to "UK", and is the political name of the country which is made of England ( its historical nucleus ), Scotland( atteched to England by the treaty of 1707), Wales and Northern Ireland(which became part of the UK in 1921, sometimes known as Ulster). Several islands off the British coast are also part of the United Kingdom (for example, the Isle of Wight, the Orkneys, Hebrides and Shetlands, and the Isles of Scilly), although the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not. However, all these islands do recognize the Queen.

Great Britain is the name of the island which is made up of England, Scotland and Wales and so, strictly speaking, it does not include Northern Ireland. The origin of the word "Great" is a reference to size, because in many European languages the words for Britain and Brittany in France are the same. In fact, it was the French who first talked about "Grande Bretagne".In everyday speech "Britain" is used to mean the United Kingdom.

The British Isles is the geographical name that refers to all the islands off the north-west coast of the European continent: Greate Britain, the whole of Ireland (Northern and Southern), the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. But it is important toremember that Southern Ireland( also called “Eire”)- is completely independent.

So you should know that "the Uni­ted Kingdom" or "Britain" is the correct name to use if you are refer­ring to the country in a political, rather than in a geographical way. "British" refers to people from the UK, Great Britain or the British Isles in general.

Before the United Kingdom was formed it took centuries and a lot of armed struggle was involved. In the 15th century, a Welsh prince, Henry Tudor, became King Henry VII of England. Then his son, King Henry VIII, united England and Wales under one Parliament in 1536. In Scotland a similar thing happened. The King of Scotland inherited the crown of England and Wales in 1603, so he became King James VI of Scotland. The Parliaments of England, Wales and Scotland were united a century later in 1707. But the British and Irish parliaments were not united until 1801. In 1922 the southern part of Ireland, predominantly² Roman Catholic in re­ligion, became a separate state. Northern Ireland, with its Protestant maj­ority, has remained part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Britain is one of the world's smaller countries with an area of some 244,100square kilometres (94,250 sq. miles); with some 56 million people, it ranks about 14th in terms of population. About half the people live in a large belt stretching north-westwards from London across England. Other large concentrations of population are in the central lowlands of Scotland, south­east Wales and the Bristol area, parts of north-east England and along much of the English Channel coast.

The climate is generally mild and temperate. The average range of tem­perature between winter and summer is greatest inland, in the eastern part of the country. During a normal summer the temperature occasionally rises above 30 °C (86 °F) in the south; winter temperatures below -10 °C (14 °F) are rare. January and February are usually the coldest months, July and August — the warmest.

The landscape is rich and varied, sometimes showing marked contrasts within short distances, particularly on the coasts. Most of the land is agri­cultural, of which over one third is arable, growing various crops, and the rest pasture and grazing. Wood­lands cover about 8 per cent of the country.

The Scottish and Welsh are proud and independent people. In recent years there have been attempts at de­volution⁵ in the two countries, parti­cularly in Scotland where the Scottish Nationalist Party was very strong for a while. However, in a referendum in 1978 the Welsh rejected" devolution and in 1979 the Scots did the same. So it seems that most Welsh and Scot­tish people are happy to form part of the UK even though they sometimes complain that they are dominated by England, and particularly by Lon­don.

Wales is officially bilingual, and Welsh is spoken by about a fifth of its population. The Scottish and Irish forms of Gaelic" survive in some parts of Scotland and Northern Ireland, some immigrant groups continue to use their own languages, usually in addition to English.

Britain is one of the 12 member states of the Europian Community (EC) and the center of Commonwealth- a political and economic unity of the countries and territories which were formaly part of the United Kingdom, plus Australia and New Zealand. All in all the Commonwealth (until 1947 it was called the British Commonwealth) comprises 49 independent states with 1.2 billion people- more then ¼ of the world population. The head of Commonwealth is the British Queen. At the same time she is the head of 17 countries of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth is generally treated as amecanisme of mutuel consultation and cooperation. Once in two years the heads of the members states meet and exchange opinions on internotional metters.

NATIONAL SYMBOLS

Nowadays the UK is personified under the name of "Britannia", as a helmeted woman seated on a globe with one arm on a shield and grasping a spear with her free hand.

The UK's national flag is Union Jack. It was set up in 1801 after the last of the three Acts of Union. Union Jack presents the combination of colours and crosses reflecting the peculiarities ofthe existing at that time national flags of England, Scotland and Ireland. The name, the colours and crosses symbolize the unitedparts of the country. Union Jack comprises three crosses. The red upright cross on the white field is St. George's Cross — the patron saint of England. The diagonal white cross on the blue field is St. Andrew's Cross — the patron saint of Scotland. The red diagonal cross on the white field is St. Patrick's Cross — thepatron saint of Ireland.

The national anthem is the oldest in the world, established in 1745 and based on a song of the 17th century. The beginning of it runs as follows:

God save our gracious Queen, God save our noble Queen,

God save the Queen/ Send her victorious, Happy and glorious Long to reign over us,

God save the Queen!

Besides the Union Jack there is the Royal Standard — Royal personal flag.

National emblems are: the red rose — of England, the thistle — of Scotland, the leek — of Wales, the shamrock — of Ireland.

The red rose became the emblem of England after the Wars of the Roses (1455—1485) which was the war of the dynasties for the English throne. All rivalry between the Roses ended by the marriage of Henry VII Tudor (the Lancastrian whose emblem was the red rose) with Princess Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV (the Yorkist whose emblem was the white rose). The red rose has since become the national emblem of England.

The thistle, the national emblem of Scotland, was chosen as such because it saved the country from the enemy. This is what a legend says about it. In ancient times the Norsemen raided the east coast of Scotland intending to plunder it and settle in the country. The Scots took their stations behind the river Tay, the largest in Scotland. Not expecting the enemy before the next day and being weary and tired after a long march they pitched their camp and were resting. The Norsemen saw that no guards protected the camp so they crossed the river intending to take the Scots by surprise. On coming quite near they took off their shoes not to make noise. But one of the Norsemen stepped on a thistle and shrieked with pain. The alarm was given in the Scots camp and the Norsemen were put to flight. Scots, thankful for timely help, chose the thistle as their national emblem.

The leek or daffodil is Welshmen's national emblem. Welshmen all over the world celebrate (on March 1) St. David's Day by wearing either leeks or daffodils. St. David is supposed to have lived for several years on bread and wild leeks, so the linkbetween the leek and St. David is a strong one. The daffodil is also closely associated with St. David's Day due to the belief that it flowers on that very day. It became an alternative to the leek as a Welsh emblem in the present century, because some thought the leek vulgar. The Welsh national flag is called Welsh dragon. It bears the red dragon on the white and green background.

The shamrock, the national emblem of the Irish, is proudly worn on St. Patrick's Day, March 17.

UNIT II

The Geographical Location of the Country

Britain constitutes the greater part of the British Isles. It is the only large archipelago off the shore of the west Europe. The largest of the islands is Great Britain. The next largest comprises Nothern Ireland and the Irish republic. Western Scotland is gringed by the large archipelago known as the Herbrides and to the north-east of the Scottish mainland are the Orkney and the Shetland. All this have administrative ties whith the mainland, but the Iles of Man, in the Irish sea, and the Channel islands, between Great Britain and France, are largely self-governing and are not part of the United Kingdom.

The extreme northern point of Britain lies approximitely on the same latitude as St-Petersburg and the extreme south is on the same latitude as Kiev. The distance between these two extremes is about 1000 km. This is just the length of the island.

Great Britain is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the North-West, North and South-West. It’s separated from Europe by the North Sea, the Srait of Dover or Pas de Calais, and the English Channel or la Manche. The North Sea and the English Channel are often called the “Narrow Seas”. They are not deep but frequently are rough and difficult to navigate during storms, which makes crossing from England to France sometemes far from pleasant.

On the West Great Britain is separated from Ireland by the Irish Sea and the North Channel. The Seas around Britain are shallow and provide exceptionally good fishing grounds.

The British Isles appear to stand on a rised part of the sea bed, usually called the continental shelf, which thousands of years ago used to be dry land and which constituted part of the mainland Europe. This shelf forms the sea floor around britain and that is why the seas surrounding the british Iles are shallow about 300 ft.

Britain has total area of 244,100 square kilometers. It occupies only 0,2 per cent of the world’s land surface. It is devided into counties, of which are 99 geographical and 43 administrative ones.

England

THE LAND

The diversity of the English landscape is based on a complex geologic structure. Almost every phase of geologic history is illustrated in the intricate patterns of England's geologic map. The oldest sedimentaryrocksand some igneousrocks (in isolated hills of granite) are in Cornwall and Devon on the southwestern peninsula,volcanic rocks underlie parts of Cumbria, and the most recent alluvial soils cover the Pens of Cambridgeshire and Norfolk. Between these regions lie bands of sandstones and limestones of different geologic periods, witness to primevaltimes when large parts of central and southern England were submergedbelow warm seas. In the period of Alpine mountain-building, these sedimentary rocks were lifted and folded to yieldchains of hills rangingfrom 965 feet (294 metres) in the North Downs to 1,083 feet in the Cotswolds. Other important hills are the Chilteras and those inLincolnshire and North Yorkshire. These hills were rounded into characteristic plateaus with west-facing escarpments by the glaciers of three successive Ice Ages. When the ice melted, the sea level rose, which submerged the land bridge with Europe. The landscape was alteredby deep depositsof sand, gravel,and glacial mud.

The Pennines, withmoorlandtops of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, splitnorthernEngland into northwest and northeast. Theseplateaus of limestone, grit­stone, and carboniferous strata are associated with major coalfields, some outcropping to the surface. The Cumbrian Mountains, which include the famous Lake District, are just westof the Pennines.ScafellPike(3,210feet), in the central part of the Lake District, is the highest point in England. The geologic complexity of England is strikingly illustrated in the cliff structureofitsshoreline.Along the southern coast from the ancient granite cliffsof Land's End in the extreme southwest is a successionof sandstones of different colours and of limestones of different ages, culminating in the white chalk from the Isle of Wight to Dover. A constantly changing panorama of cliffs, bays, and river estuariesdistinguishes the English coastline, which is some 2.000 miles long.

CLIMATE

Weather in England is as variableas the topography. As in other temperate maritime zones, the averages are moderate, ranging in the ThamesValleyfromabout35°F(2°C) in January to 72° F (22°C) in July; but the extremes in England go below 0° F (-18°C) and above 90° F (32°C).

The Roman historian Tacitus recorded that the climate was"objectionable, with frequent rains and mists, but no extreme cold." Yetthereis snow cover in the higher parts of Englandabout 50 days a year. Though known as a wet country, northeastern and central England has less than 40 inches (1,000 millimetres) of rainfall annually and frequently suffers from drought. In parts of the southeast, the annual rainfall averagesonly 20 inches.

Charles II thought that the English climate was the best in the world—"a man can enjoy outdoor exercise in all but five days of the year". But no one would disputethat it is unpredictable: hence Dr. Samuel Johnson's observationthat "when two Englishmen meet their first talk is of the weather." This changeability of the weather, not only season by season but day by day and even hour by hour, has had a profound effect on Englishart and literature.

RESOURCES

Coal is England's richest natural resource and has always met thenation'srequirementfor energy. Important coalreserves (mainly bituminous)are found in Northumberland, Durham, Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire. The Vale of Belvoir, in Leicestershire, has recoverablereservesestimatedat 510 million tons. Exploitation at the deep coal mine at Selby, in North Yorkshire, is planned to yieldabout 10 million tons of coal per yearwhencompleted.

Onshore crude oil fields are located in Dorset,Hampshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire and Humberside. Seven major and several minornatural gas fields, located in the North Sea, supply England with naturalgas.

The sources of England's water are both underground and surface. Insoutheastern England the Downs,the Chillern Hillsand the major partofthe Isle of Wight have chalk soil,underneath which lie the sands and claysthatsealthe huge water reservoir of the London Basin.

Only 7 per cent of England's landscape is woodland. Broad-leaved (oak, beech, ash, birch and elm) and conifer (pine,fir, spruce and larch) trees dominale the landscapes of Kent, Surrey, East Sussex, West Sussex,Suffolk and Hampshire. Important forests include Ashdown in East Sussex;Epping and Hatfield in Essex; Deanin Gloucestershire; Sherwood in Nottinghamshire; Redesdale, Kielder and Wark in Northumberland; and Grizedale in Cumbria. A substantial acreageof forests is privately owned.

Plant and Animal life

England shares with the rest of Britain a diminished range of vegetation and living creatures,partly because the island was separated from the mainland of Europe soon after much of it had been swept bare by the last Ice Age and partly because the land has been so industriouslyworked.Woodlandcoversmerely7 per cent of England's total land area. A drastic depletion of mature broad-leaved forests, especially oak, was a result of the overuse of timberin the iron and shipbuilding industries. A modified pattern of vegetation has now emergedthroughovergrazing,forest clearance, reclamationand drainage of marshlands, and the introduction of exotic plant species.Though there are fewer species of plantsthan in the European mainland, they spana wide range and include some rarities. Certain Mediterraneanspecies exist in the sheltered and almost subtropical valleys of the southwest, while vestiges of the Ice Age tundra survive in parts of the moorlandof the northeast. England has a profusionof summer wildflowers in its fields. In some parts these have been severely reduced by the use of herbicides on farms and roadsideverges.Cultivated gardens, which contain many species of trees, shrubsand flowering plants from all over the world, account for much of the varied vegetation of the country.

Several animal species such as the bear, wolf and beaverwereexterminated in historic times, butothers such as the fallow deer, rabbit and rat have been introduced. More recently birds of prey have suffered at the hands of farmers protecting their stockand their game birds. Under protective measures, including a law restrictingthe collecting of birds' eggs some of the less common birds have been re-establishing themselves.The bird life is unusually varied, mainly because the country lies along the of bird migrations. Some birds have found town gardens, where they often fed, a favourable environment, and in London about 100 different spices recorded annually. London also is a favourable habitat for foxes, which in small numbers have colonized woods and heathswithin a few miles of the city centre. There are few kinds of reptiles and amphibians about half a dozen species of each — but they are nearly all plentifulwhere conditions suit them.

Freshwater fish are numerous; the char and allied species of the lakes of Cumbria probably represent an old group related to the troutthat migrated to the sea before the tectonic changes that formed these lakes cutofftheir outlet. The marine fishes are abundant in species and ha absolute numbers. The great diversity of shores produces habitats for numerous species ofinvertebrateanimals.

Scotland

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Scotland is generally hilly,and it is traditionally divided into three geographic regions from north to south: the Highlands, the Lowlands andSouthern Uplands.

The Highlands are bisected from northeast to southwest by the faultof the Great Glen, which is occupied by a series of lochs (lakes), ofLoch Ness is the best-known. The North West Highlands lie to the north of the Great Glen,and the more extensive Grampian Mountains lie to the south.

TheLowlandsregion is low by comparisonwithadjoiningareas but is by no means flat. The landscape is variedby series of hills and includes some of Scotland's best areas for arablefarming.

The Southern Uplands are not as high in elevationas the Highlands or asfractured in appearance. Glaciation has led to narrow, flat valleys separating table mountains throughout much of the region. Toward the southeast the Uplands open out into the TweedValley, which broadensintorich alluvial farmland, and to the southwest they slopetoward the Galloway Peninsula.

CLIMATE

Scotland has a temperateoceanic climate, milderthan might be expected from its latitude. Despite its small area, there are considerable variations. Rainfall is greatest in the mountainous areas of the west, as prevailing winds blow from the southwest and come ladenwithmoisturefromthe Atlantic. East windsare common only in winter and spring, when cold,dry continental air masses envelop the east coast. Hence,the west tends to be milder in winter, with less frost and with snow seldom lyinglong at lower altitudes,but it is damperand cloudier than the east in summer.

Tiree, in the Inner Hebrides off the west coast, has a meantemperaturein winter of 41° F (5° C) in the coldest month (as high as southeastern England), whereas Dundee, on the east coast, has 37° F (2.8° C). Dundee'smean temperature in the warmest month is 59° F (15° C) and Tiree's 57^C F (13.9° C). There is a smaller rangeof temperatures over the year m Scotland than in southern England.

Rainfall varies remarkably. Some two-thirds of Scotland exceeds40 inches (1,000 millimetres) annually,the average for Britain,with 142 inches in the Ben Nevis area and somewhat more near Loch Quoich farther to the northwest. In the flat OuterHebrides, rainfall is lower,asareannualaverages in the east, the MorayFirth having less than 25 inches and Dundeeless than 32 inches. A significant amount of snow falls above 1,500 feetintheHighlandsin winter.

RESOURCES

Until recently, Scotland's chief mineral resource was coal. The industryreached its peak production, of 43 million tons in 1913 but has since declined drastically.In particular, deep mining has become largely uneconomical, and by the late 1980s numbers employed had dwindled to a few thousand. Other minerals that have been worked intermittentlyinclude gold, silver, chromite, diatomite, and dolomite, but none has been successfully exploited.Though peat is available to a depth of two feet or more over some 1.7 million acres (688,000 hectares), its economic value is limited. It is still burned for fuelin the Highlands, but the time and labour involved in cutting and drying in an uncertainclimate have led to decreasing use.

During the 1970s anew Scottish resource. North Sea oil, was developed. The oil fields lie mostly in Scottish waters, but the British governmentholds their ownership and receives all the revenue yield. The oil has been located and extracted by large companies, most with the aid of U.S. technology. Aberdeen is the centre of the oil industry, and the Shetlands have also benefitedfrom discoveries in adjacentwaters. Tens of thousands of jobs were created in Scotland by onshore oil-related enterprises, such as building oil production platforms and servicing North Sea operators, thoughthe new-found prosperityfell back when oil revenues were severelyreduced in 1986. Natural gas from North Sea wellshas replaced manufactured gas in Scotland.

Water is a valuableresource, especially for generating electricity. The North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board(NSHEB) was set up in 1943 to builddamsand power stations. It operates several hydroelectric stations and has pumped storage schemes by which electricity generated in off-peak periods may be used to pump water to a higher dam, from which it descendsat peak periods to operate the turbogenerators. The NSHEB has also coal- and oil-fired stations. The South of Scotland Electricity Board (SSEB) has reducedits use of coal as a source of primaryfuel, and nuclear generation, with the commissioning of the nuclear station at Torness, east of Edinburgh, now accounts for the major portion of Scotland's output of electricity. At Dounreay, in the Highland region, the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority has been carrying out experiments with a fastbreeder-reactorsince 1959.

Plant and Animal Life

Lowerground, up to about 1,500 feet, was once covered with natural forests, which have been cleared in the courseof centuries and replaced in some areas by introducedtrees,plants and crops. Survivals of the original forest are found sporadicallythroughout the Highlands, for examplein the pinewoods of Rothiemurchus in the Spey Valley. Grass and heathercover most of the Grampians and Southern Uplands, where the soil is not so wet and dank as in the northwestern Highlands. On peaty soil, shrubs such as bearberry, crowberry and blaeberry (bilberry) grow, as does bog cotton. Alpine and Arctic species flourish on the highest slopesand plateaus of the Grampians, including saxifrages, creeping azalea and dwarf willows. Ben Lawers is noted for the wealth of Us mountain flora.

For its size, Scotland is rich in animal life. Herdsof red deer graze in the remote glens, and their population is estimated at about 300,000. Although formerly a woodland species, they are now found mainly on higher ground, but roe deer stillinhabitthe woods, along with fallow deer, both introduced species, in some areas. Foxes and badgersare widespread, and the number of wildcats is thought to be increasing. Rabbits were earlier decimated by the disease of myxomatosis but are no« recoveringto earlier numbers. Pine marten, otters and mountain and brown hares are among other wild mammals.

A few ospreys nest in Scotland, and golden eagles, buzzard -peregrine falcons, and kestrels are the most notable of resident birds prey. The red grouse, the Scottish subspecies of the willow grouse, hadlong been hunted for sport. Other species of grouse include the ptarinigfound only at higher altitudes,and the large capercailye,reintroduced 'to Scottish pinewoods. Large numbers of seabirds, such as fulmars, uillcniots and various types of gull, breedon cliffs and on the isolated neks around the magnificent coasts. Almost half the world's Atlantic, or halfsealsbreed in Scottish waters, especially around the Northern and Western Isles, as do numerous common seals; dolphins and porpoisesare regularly seen and whalesoccasionally, especially on the west coast.

Wales

THE LAND RELIEF

On three sides the boundariesof Wales are natural, with the shores of the Dee estuary and Liverpool Bay to the north, the Irish Sea to the west, and the coastline of the Severn estuary and its development into the Bristol Channel, where the capital of Cardiff is located, on the south. The Isle of Anglesey, lying off the northwest coast, is linked to the mainland by road and rail bridges. The extentof the country from north to south is about 130 miles (210 kilometres); and its width varies, reaching 90 miles acrossinthe north, narrowing to about 40 miles in the centre, and widening again to more than 100 miles across the southern portion.

The eastern boundary, that with England, is an administrative but notpoliticalfrontiercreated in 1536 as part of the Act of Union finally and effectively linking England and Wales. This boundary, being purelyadministrative in origin, does not in detail conformto any specific topographical characteristics or features. It runs in general from north to south through the region where the uplandmassif of Wales gives way to the lowlandsof the western Midlands of England. Though not perhaps a natural frontier, it is one that separates distinctive regions, and over thecenturies the borderland zone through which it runs has developed a marked character of its own.

The location of Wales makes il an integralpart of the island of Britain, with whose development — and hencewith that of the European continent beyond— its character and destiny have been intimatelylinked. In addition, the location of Wales on that extreme western fringeoften characterised as Atlantic Europe has given the country a distinctive endowmentinenvironmentand landscape, and it has been responsible for a unique cultural, social, and economic development. The effects of this dual,andoften uneasy, heritagecontinueto permeate much of its national life. Walesexhibitsmany of the problems encounteredby the smaller nations of the world while lacking — as it has for the past seven centuries — their politically independent status.

There are four majorfeaturesintherelief of Wales, namely mountains(above 2,000 feet), dissected plateaus and hills (600 feet to 2,000 feet), coastalareas, and valleylowlands. The two mountain areas, Snowdoniain the northwestand the Brecon Beacons in the south, have been dominated by the effects of mountain glaciation. In Snowdonia,whichcontains the highest peak, 3,560 feet (1,085 metres), in the country, these effects have been accentuated by resistant rock, often volcanic in origin, and themagnificent scenery is much morestark and rugged than the softer outlinesof the Beacons.

The two mountain areas are both joined and surroundedby aregion of plateaus and hills called the Cambrian Mountains, which consist of anumber of distinct uplandmassifsthatare themselves partially fragmented by river action. These rolling, river-cut upland surfaces, with an accordance of summit levels and broken by valley lands that tonguein toward the centre, form a backbonedominating the entire relief pattern of Wales. The upland plateaus are themselves girdledon the seaward side by a series of coastal plateaus rangingfrom 100 feet to 700 feet in height and also well cut into by the erosive action of rivers. They are sometimes broken by the "steps" of fossil cliff lines, and where they do not end in spectacularsea-poundedcliffs they are replaced by coastal flatsthat are estuarineinorigin.

The fourth relief element in the landscape, that of valley land, is madeup of the larger river valleys originating in the central upland mass and broadening westward near the sea or eastward as they mergeinto the lowland plainsof the English border.

CLIMATE

Walesenjoys a maritime climate dominated by Atlantic air masses with a considerablevariety of character and a relative unpredictabilityofoccurrence. It is therefore weather, rather than climate, that influences the life of the country.

Rainfall is frequent and often more than adequate, the annual average being 55 inches (1,385 millimetres), with four inches (88 millimetres) in April and six inches (142 millimetres) in January. Winter snowfall can be significantin the uplands,where some 10 days are recorded on average with snow or sleetfalling. The annual meantemperature is 50° F (10° C) but rangingfrom 40° F(4° C) in Januaryto61° F (16° C) in July and

August.

These average figures failto reflect the extreme variabilityofactualweather conditions and mask the considerable variations that result from thediversephysicalenvironment.

RESOURCES

Coal remains the one major mineral resource of Wales. Nonferrous ores occur in small quantities, which are not now economically viable;while iron-ore deposits, though important during the early development of the industrial regions, are now exhausted. The two coalfields are in the northeast and in South Wales; the field in the latter is by far the largest and includes some higher-grade anthracite.

Following nationalization in 1947, modernisation and the closure of uneconomic pits, largely as a result of geologic problems, made coal mining a declining industry. One of the outstanding features of Wales in the second half of the 20th century was the relegation of coal mining to a minor role in the economy.

Apart from coal and, of course, agriculture, the only other naturalresources of Wales are water and woodlands, with the Forestry Commission (a government department) owning and operating on a commercial basisestates of a few hundred thousand acres. Although there are threehydroelectric undertakings in Wales, water resources are mainly exploited by impounding for domestic and industrial purposes. About half of the autput of waterworks in Wales serve areas in England.

Plant and Animal life

The combination of physical conditions and centuries of human activity has led to a vegetation coverage in which induced grassland and plantation woodland currently predominate. Grassland varies from mountaingrasses and heather to lowland ryegrass pastures, while woodlands are either mixed parkland, boundary and private plantation, or Forestry Commission in origin.

The remoter parts of Wales shelter some mammals and birds extinct or rare elsewhere in Britain. The polecat is fairly common in central Wales though hardly known elsewhere; the pine marten occurs in a few places; a few pairs of red kites represent the sole British survivors, and the chough breeds inland as well as at some coastal sites. Various seabirds and shorebirds occur in large numbers as might be expected in a country with about 600 miles (965 kilometres) of varied coastline.

There are three designated national parks in Wales (Snowdonia, Pembrokeshire Coast, Brecon Beacons) and five Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (Gower, Lleyn, Anglesey, Clwydian Range and the Wye Valley).

NORTHERN IRELAND

PHYSICAL AND HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Topographically, Northern Irelandcan be thought of as a saucercentredon Lough (lake)Neagh, its upturned rim forming the province's highlands. Five of the six former counties — Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, and Londonderry — met at the lake, and each had a highland region on the saucer's rim.

To the north and east the Mountains of Antrim (which form a plateau) tiltupward toward the coast, reaching a height of 1,817 feet (554 m) atTrostan.

The rounded landscape of drumlins— smooth moundscreated by glaciation— in the southeast ispunctuated by Slieve Croob at 1,745 feet (532 m) and culminates in the Mourne Mountains, whichrise to Slieve Donardat 2,789 feet (850 m).

CLIMATE

Northern Ireland's climate is temperate and maritime; most of its weather comes from the southwest in a series of low-pressure systems bringing the rain and clouds that often lendcharacter to the landscape. Because the country is near the central track of such lows, it oftenexperienceshigh winds. In the north and on the east coast, particularly, severe westerly gales are common. Above the 800-foot level, distortedtrees and windbreaks testify to the severity of the weather.

Rainfall decreases from west to east, although the hiils accentuatethe amount to some 80 inches (2,000 millimetres) in parts of the west, and there is as little as 32.5 inches at Lough Neagh and the extreme southeast. A relatively dry spring gives way to a wet summer and a wetter winter.

Daily conditions generally are highly changeable, but there are noextremes of heat and cold. The country is exposed to the amelioratingeffects of the North Atlantic Current,a northeastward extension of the Gulf Stream. Average January temperatures vary from 38° F (3.3° C) on the north coast to 35° F (1.7° C) in the east; in July temperatures of 65° F (18.3° C) are common. In late spring and early summer the eastern part of the country has slightly lower temperatures, accompanied by acoastalfog called the "haar." These mild and humidclimatic conditions have, in sum, made Northern Ireland a green country in all seasons.

Plant and Animal Life

The general features of the vegetation of the province are similar to se in the northwest of Britain. The human imprint is heavy on the landscape and is particularly evident in the absence of trees. Most of the as been ploughed, drained and cultivated for centuries. Above the limit of cultivation, rough pastures are grazed extensively, and beyond them lies a zone of mountain vegetation. Onlyabout 5 per cent of the land is now under forest, and most of this has been planted by the state. Young trees in these plantations are economically unimportant, but locally they help to diversifythe landscape.

The fauna of Northern Ireland is not very different from that of Great Britain; there are, however, fewer species of mammals and birds. Only two mammals — the Irish stoatand the Irish hare — and three species of birds are exclusively Irish. The province is rich in fish, particularly pike, perch, trout and salmon; the first is the only fish introduced in historic times. As the result of an increasing concern withconservation,there are some 40 nature reserves and several bird sanctuariescontrolled by the UlsterTrust for Nature Conservation and by the Department of the Environment.

UNIT III

THE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM

Wales

ECONOMY

Because of the complete political and economic integration of Wales with the remainder of the United Kingdom, the national economy simplyreflects the trends and patterns of the larger unit.

Certain specific characteristics of the economy can, however, be recognised, of which the first is that (he proportion of capital-intensiveindustries is relatively high. This means that, since World War , the rise in the per capita product of the economy has exceeded the United Kingdom average; but, because so much of this is due to capital contribution, thetrend is not reflected in the level of personal income, which remains below the average for Britain.

The other two individual features are that the economy does not generate sufficient capital for its needs, necessitating a net inflow from other areas, while the most unsatisfactory characteristic of all is that unemployment figures for Wales remain consistently above the national British average.

INDUSTRY

Despitethe fact that coal is a major raw material in Wales, it is the energy-producing industries of gas and electricity, and also metal manufacturing (mainly of iron, steel and tinplate),thatleadin the table of total incomeproducedperpersonemployed.Mining, well down the list, is exceededby agriculture, by general manufacturing, and by transport,distribution,and construction. In terms of proportions of the labourforce employed, pride of place goes to services (including construction), followed by engineering, general manufacturing, distributive trades, metal manufacture and mining. The various other economic activities are of less significance.

A problem of particularsignificance in Wales is that of restructuring industry to meetgreatly changed economic conditions, especially the declineof the heavy "smokestack"industries.Improved accessibility has made both the southeast and the northeast attractive to new manufacturing activity. The southeast has the largest concentration of Japanese investment in Britain, mainly in electronics. Engineering and pharmaceutical industries have also developed.

Government policy has helped; in 1968 the Royal Mintwas moved to Llantrisant, in Mid Glamorgan county. With these developments, banking and financial services have expanded,although Wales has no independent financial system. But a (private) Bankof Wales has been established,and two government agencies, the Welsh Development Agency and Mid Wales Development, provide advice as well as financial incentivesto industrialists consideringmoving into Wales.

Northern Ireland

INDUSTRY AND SERVICES

Although fanning dominates the landscape of the country, it provides alivelihoodfor only about 1 in 10 of Northern Ireland's people. Realwealth formerly lay in manufacturing — engineering, shipbuilding, the production of linen and clothing, and food and tobacco processing.Linen manufacturing in particular, based on local flax and plentiful soft water, was a feature of many small towns as well as being very important in Belfast. Much of the heavy industry, based on importedraw materials, was concentrated in Belfast, where shipbuilding especially became amainstayofemployment.But however successfulthese activities were until the earlier part of the 20th century, the industrial structure of Northern Ireland has proved very vulnerableand fallen preytorecessionsandtohigh unemployment. From 1950 to 1980 the government actively encouragedthe regeneration of industry and particularly its diversificationby,forexample, broadening the textile industry by introducing man-made fibres.A series of government acts tried to attract new enterprises into the province with factory space and grantstoward capital expenditure. In relation to the rest of the United Kingdom, however, Northern Ireland is peripheral and partially isolated, and since 1968 civil disorder has beena great disincentiveto incoming firms.

Nevertheless, change has continued. As in the rest of the United Kingdom, there has been much restructuring. The number employed in mnanufacturing industries has fallen dramatically and now accounts for less than one-fifth of the total workforce. The construction industry has also suffered. But there has been an enormous increase in the number ofemployeesin the service industries, now nearly three-fourths of the total. This has been mainly in the public sector, an even greater change than in the United Kingdom as a whole because the province had previouslylaggedbehind in this respect.Between 1960 and 1980 employment in the public sector more than doubled, mainly in education, medicine, and administration. Insurance, finance and other services have also increased. Local trade unions are affiliatedwith the Irish Congress of Trade Unions through its Northern Ireland Committee. Most union members belong both to unions associated with this organisation and to British-based unions affiliated with the Trades Union Congress.

THE ECONOMY

Economically, Northern Ireland is an integralpart of the United Kingdom. Its trade is dominated by imports from and exports to other parts of the United Kingdom, though some of the latter are reexported directly from England or are the bases of manufactured goods that are subsequently exported. Trade with, the republic of Ireland accounts for a small percentage of the total, and there are lesser links with parts of theCommonwealthand with other European countries.

Northern Ireland is an industrialised country, and the mass of its exports is made up of manufactured goods. This situation, however, has placed a heavy relianceon the import of raw materials, and the Belfast region might well be thought of as an extension of the industrial regions of northwestern England and of the Clyde. Its own mineral resources'are extremely meagre:coal must be imported from Great Britain, although local chalk, clays, limestones and gravels are used to produce lime,bricks and cement. Northern Ireland's power resources, loo, depend on imported coal and oil.

AGRICALTURE AND FISHING

Northern Ireland possesses considerable agricultural resources, which aredevelopedas amajor part of its economy. It is primarily still a country of farmers; during the 20th century, however, this situation began to change. The number of farms decreased,giving a substantial increase in the average size. Consolidation meant a better livelihood For fewer farmers.

Almost all farms now have electricity, and there has been a great increase in the number of tractors and combine harvestersin use. The frequent rain, the high humidityand the prospectof wet harvests discourage arablefarming, but local conditions produce good grass and rich pasture;nearly all grassland is ploughedand there is little "rough grazing,"Mixed farming was traditionally universal, but there has been a considerable movement toward specialization; nearly half the farms concentrate on sheep and beef, and one-fifth specialize in dairying.Principalcropsinclude potatoes, barley,wheat, and oats; turnips are grown to feed livestock.The production of grass seed and seed potatoes for export is also important. To the south of Lough Neagh lies a rich orchard country, and apple growing and market gardening are constant features of the landscape. Most of the agricultural land is held by the occupiers infee simple, but there persists the peculiar feature of conacre,a system of short (11-month) lets, which still accounts for a portion of the agricultural land. Two-thirds of the farmers are "working owners."

Ocean fishing is more or less confinedto the northern Irish Sea and is limited to trawlersthat operate primarily from the ports of Kilkeel, Ardglass, and Portavogie. Prawns, cod, whiting and herring are among the main catches. There has been increasing development of marine farming, particularly for oysters.Inland,salmonandeelfishing is traditional, the latter concentrated where the Bann leaves Lough Neagh.

SCOTLAND

INDUSTRY

In its industrial heyday Scotland's prosperitywas based on such heavy industries as coal, steel, shipbuilding, and engineering. In more recenttimes these have been the industries most exposedto foreign competition and to changes of demand.The task of correcting Scotland's industrial balance by reducingdependence on heavy industries and replacing them with high-technology enterprises and those making consumergoods has been slow and laborious,but considerable progress has been made in diversifyingthe structure of industry and in modernising it. As with coal, the history of steel and shipbuilding is one of a reduction in the number of plants and employees.The sale of the nationalised British Shipbuilders to the private sector resulted in a continued reduction in the number of major

shipyards in Scotland.

Throughout the 1980s the special facilities built to providerigs and platforms for exploitingthe North Sea oil and gas reserves experienced fluctuating demand, and some of them closed. Severecuts in capacity were also made in the steel industry as the state-owned British SteelCorporationstroveto meet the government's financial targets as a preludeto privatisation. Though not matching the older manufactures in terms of employment, the computer, office equipmentand electronic industries have expanded, notably in the Fife, Lothian and Strathclyde regions. Much of this investment has come from overseas,particularly the United States.

Printing and brewing formerly were well-established industries in Edinburgh and Glasgow but are now in decline. Distilleries in the Highlandsand the northeast produce the whiskey for which Scotland is internationally famous. Despite crushing taxation on home consumption, whiskey sales have continued to increase, and its appeal in foreign countries remainshigh. Separate records of Scotland's exports are not kept, but it is known that whiskey's contribution to the British overseas trade is substantial. In the 1980s its total was exceeded by office machinery and data-processingequipment, and petroleum products are also important. Mechanical, electrical and electronic engineering industries export much of their output, and the textile industries of the Borders region and the Harris tweed in the Hebrides also have a considerable, though reduced, export business. Since the mid-1960s there has been a marked shift in employment frommanufacturing to service industries, including tourism. The majority of tourists come from other parts of Scotland or the United Kingdom, butconsiderably more than a million annually come from abroad.

ECONOMY

Scotland's economy has in recent times shared in acute form the problems besetting many European countries, brought about by rapidchanges that includethe move away from heavy industries.

Unemploymentis a serious problem, especially in those areas where major industries have declined,and it is consistentlyhigher than in the rest of the United Kingdom.

Successive governments have made effortstoimprovethese conditions by a variety of measures. Chief among these is the Scottish Development Agency, which was set up in 1975 to encourageindustry. The Highlands and Islands Development Boardhad been established10 years earlier to carry out similar functions in the more remoteregions.

AGRICALTURE AND FISHING

In terms of productivity,no industry has made greater progress than agriculture inpostwar years. Owing to mechanisation, the labour force has fallen from about 88,000 in 1951 to barelya third of that number, though some casual and part-time workers are also employed.

Most of Scotland is hilly land, with hill-sheep farming predominating, particularly in the Southern Uplands and in the Highlands; in the northeast livestockraising is dominant. In the southwest dairyfarming suits the wetter, milder climate and has a convenientmarket in the central Clydeside conurbation. Arable cropping is mainly found along the eastern seaboard. Barleyand wheat are the main cereals; the acreage devoted to potatoes, though substantial, has declined. New crops, such asrape,have increased considerably, while oat production has fallen and been replaced by barley as the maincereal for livestock feed. Raspberry growing is mainly concentrated in theTaysideregion. Tomatoes are still grown in greenhousesin the Clyde Valley, but the business has declined. The outputof turnips and hayfor livestock feeding has fallen, being replaced by an increase in grasssilage.In animal production, the most striking feature has been the rise in the number of cattleand, to a lesser extent, sheep; there has also been expansion in pig andpoultryproduction.

Croftingis a special section of the agricultural scene that has to besupplemented by other work, such as forestry, road work, cateringfor tourists, and weaving.Though there are thousands of crofts in the northern area, many of them are no longer cultivated.

The seafood industry continues to play a vital role in Scotland's economy. More than two-thirds of the total British fish and shellfish catch is now landedinto Scottish ports.

Peterheadranksas the European Communities' top whitefish-landing port, and the Grampian regionis one ofthe United Kingdom's maincentres of fish processing. Haddock, cod, herring, sole and mackerel are the main specieslanded. Nephrops (langoustine)is the most important shellfish,thoughscallop,queen scallop, lobsterand several crab varieties are also important.

There is some commercial salmonfishing on the west coast, and in recent years fish farminghas been developed, especially of salmon and shellfish along the coast and troutin the inland lochs.

ENGLAND

INDUSTRY

Iron ore is mined in Northamptonshire and Humberside. Cornwall is the only county in England that provides the nation with tin ore. Sand,gravel, and crushed rock, widely available, provide raw materials for

the construction industry. Clay and salt are found in the northwesternEngland, and china clay is available in Cornwall.

More than two-thirds of those employed in England work in the serviceindustries, London is a major financial, banking, and insurance centre.Cambridge, Ipswich and Norwich are important service and high-tech centres. Nearly a quarter of England's workers are employed in manufacturing. Major industries located in the northern counties include food processing, brewing and the manufacture of chemicals, textiles,computers, automobiles, aircraft, clothing, glass, and paper and paperproducts. Leading industries in southeastern England are Pharmaceuticals,computers, microelectronics, aircraft parts and automobiles.

England produces 90 per cent of Britain's coal. More than four-fifths of its total energy is from coal-fired steam plants, less than one-fifth from nuclear power plants, and the remainder from oil and natural gas. Theworld's first large-scale nuclear power plant was opened in 1956. at Calder Hall, in Cumbria. Several nuclear power plants, including eight in southern England, are now in operation.

Tourism plays a significant role in England's economy. The country'sattractions appeal to a wide variety of interests, ranging from its rich architecture, archaeology, arts and culture, to its horticulture and scenic landscape.

THE ECONOMY

Untilthe 18th century the economy of England was mainly agricultural. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, however, England gradually evolvedinto a highly urbanized and industrial region. During the late 18th and the 19th centuries, the growth of heavy industries (iron and steel, textiles and shipbuilding) in the northeastern countieswas based on the coal and iron-ore deposits.

During the 1930s the Depression and foreign competition contributed to a decreasein the production of manufactured goods and an increasein unemployment in the factories of Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire.The unemployed from these northern counties moved south to London andthe surrounding counties. The southeast became urbanized and industrialized, with automotive, chemical, electrical and machine tool manufactures as the leading industries.

An increase in population and urban growth during the 20th centurycaused a significant dropin the acreage of farms in England, but the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Kent, Lincolnshire, Somerset and North Yorkshirehave remained agricultural.

THE BANK OF ENGLAND

In Broad street is the Bank of England, a stone building, which occupies one side of Thread-needle Street. The centre and the building behind were founded in the year 1733; the architect George Sampson. Before that time the business was transacted in Grocers-hall.

The front is a sort of vestibule; the base is rustic, the ornamentalcolumns above are Ionic. Within is a court leading to a second elegantbuilding, which contains a hall and offices, where the debt of above 250 millions is punctually discharged. Of late years two wings of uncommon elegance, designed by Sir Robert Taylor, have been added, at the expense of a few houses. The name of the projector of this national glory wasMr. James Paterson of Scotland.

This palladium of our country was in 1780 saved from the fury of aninfamous banditti by the virtue of its citizens, who formed suddenly avolunteer company and over-awed the miscreants; while the chief magistrate skulked, trembling in his mansion-house, and left his importantcharge to its fate. This important building has ever since been very properly guarded by the military.

AGRICALTURE FORESTRY AND FISHING

The physical environmentand natural resources of England are more favourableto agricultural development than those of other parts of the United Kingdom. A greater proportion of the land consists of lowlandswith good soilswhere the climate is conducive to grass or cropgrowing. The majority of English farms are small, most holdingsbeing less than 250 acres (100 hectares); nevertheless,they are highly mechanised.

Wheat, the chief grain crop, is grown in the drier, sunnier countiesof eastern and southern England, where new, stronger varieties have become increasingly widespread and average yields have risen significantly since the 1960s. Barleyis grown mainly for livestockfeed. The acreageunderoats is graduallydeclining.Cora (maize) and rye are also grown. Principal potato-growing areas are the fenlandsof Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and Lincolnshire; the claysoils of Humberside; and the peatsof North Yorkshire. Sugar-beetproduction depends heavily on government subsidy because of competition from imported canesugar. In recent years, acreage and yield for rapehave increased. Grass and its variants are grown for feeding livestock.

The growing of vegetables, fruit, and flowers,known in England as market gardening, is often done in greenhousesand is found within easy truckingdistance of large towns, the proximityof a market being of more consequencethan climatic considerations. The fertile (clay and limestone)soil of Kent has always been conducive to fruit growing. Cultivation was first established there on a commercial scalein the 16th century. The county of Kentis a major supplier of fruits and vegetables (apples, pears, black currants, cauliflowersand cabbages). Hereford and Worcester is noted for its plums, while Somerset and Devon specialise in ciderapples.

The agriculture of England, though to a lesser extent than in Wales and Scotland, is primarily concerned with livestock husbandryand, in particular, with milk production. Dairyingis important in every county, though the main concentrations are in western England. The quality of dairy cattlewas improved considerably after World War IIby the artificial insemination service, operated largely by the Milk Marketing Board, which makes available the best dairy strainsto all fanners. The higher-yielding dairy breeds, including the Frisian and Ayrshire, have become more numerous than the once-dominant Shorthorn.

Many forests in England are managedby the Forest Commission, which besides promoting timber production also emphasizes wildlife preservation.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, timber was heavily used by the iron and steel and shipbuilding industries. Presently, demand for timber continues in construction and furniture industries, but with the government's afforestationprogram in effect, new forests are coming to dot the landscape.

Freshwater fish, including bream,carp,perch, pike and roach, are available in the rivers of eastern England. Cod, haddock, whiting, herring, plaice, halibut, turbot and sole are caught in the North and Irish seas. Several ports, including Lowestoft, Great Yarmouth, Grimsby, Bridlington and Fleetwood, have freezing and processingplants nearby. Oysterfarms are located along the creeks and estuaries in Essex, and rainbow-trout farming has become popular. Salmonfishingis prohibited in waters more than six miles from the coasts of England.

UNIT IV

BRITISH STATE SYSTEM

GENERAL

Britain is a multiparty democracy (state system). It's complex and unique as it is the product of a long period of historical development which resulted in the Glorious Revolution and establishment of the Crowned Republic in 1688. The absence of a revolutionary upheaval since then, i. e. for more than 300 years, the lack of a document known as a written constitution, the tendency to preserve outward forms when the inner substance is changed — all this makes the English polity both complex and unique.

Officially Great Britain is a state of the constitutional monarchy. That means that at the head of the state is monarch (Queen or King). But the power of the Queen is not absolute, it is greatly limited by Parliament.

British polity comprises three main ruling bodies — monarchy, parliament and government. The oldest of the three institutions is monarchy. In many countries their constitution inforces a strict separation between the three branches of power — the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. Britain "as sorne separation but not very much. The legal system is dependent to a large degree: although the government of the appoints judges, it cannot interfere with their work and it cannot get rid of those appointed by the previous government. But the executive and the legislature are not separate at all. In fact, the former is part of the latter, because government is formed within Parliament. Judiciary is also performed by Parliament.

MONARCHY

ANCIENT INSTITUTION

The monarchy is the most ancient secular institution in the United Kingdom, going back at least to the 9th century. The Queen can trace her descent from the Saxon' King Egbert, who united all England under his sovereignty in 829. The continuity of the monarchy has been broken only once by a republic that lasted only 11 years (1649—1660). Monarchy is founded on the hereditary principle and it has never been abandoned. The succession passed automatically to the oldest male child or, in the absence of males, to the oldest female offspring of the monarch. Quite recently the rules of descent have been changed. Now the succession passes to the oldest child irrespective of its sex.

The coronation of the sovereign follows some months or a year after the accession. The ceremony has remained much the same in substance for over 1000 years. It consists of recognition and acceptance of the new monarch by the people; the taking by the monarch of an oath of royal duties; the anointing and crowning (after communion); and the rendering of homage¹ by the Lords Spiritual and Temporal.

The coronation service, conducted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, is held at Westminster Abbey in the presence of representatives of the Lords, the Commons and all the great public interests in the United Kingdom, the Prime Minister and leading members of the Commonwealth countries, representatives of foreign states.

By the Act of Parliament, the monarch must be a Protestant. The Queen's title in the United Kingdom is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith".

For several centuries the monarch personally exercised supreme executive, legislative and judicial powers but with the growth of Parliament and the courts the direct exercise of these functions progressively decreased. The 17th-century struggle between the Crown and Parliament led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

FUNCTIONS AND POWERS

The monarch in law is the head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature,-the head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Crown and the temporal governor of the established Church of England. But the Crown is only sovereign by the will of Parliament, and the Queen acts on the advice of her ministers which she cannot constitutionally ignore. And in most matters of state the refusal of the Queen to exercise her power according to the direction of her Prime Minister would risk a serious constitutional crisis. That's why it is often said that the monarch reigns but does not rale.

Nevertheless, the functions of the monarch are politically important. The powers of the monarch are to summon, prorogue (suspend until the next session) and dissolve Parliament; to give royal assent to legislation passed by Parliament. The Queen is the "fountain of justice" and as such can, on the advice of the Home Secretary, pardon or show mercy to convicted criminals.

As the "fountain of honour" the Queen confers peerages, knighthoods and other honours. She makes appointments to many important state offices. She appoints or dismisses government ministers, judges, governors, members of diplomatic corps. As the Commander-in-Chief of the armed services (the Royal Navy, the Army and the Royal Air Force) she appoints officers, and as temporal head of the established Church of England she makes appointments to the leading positions in the Church.

In international affairs as Head of the State the Queen has the power to conclude treaties, to declare war and to make peace, to recognize foreign states and governments, and to annexe and cede territories.

THE QUEEN AND THE PRIME MINISTER

An important function of the Sovereign is the appointment of a prime minister. Normally the appointment is automatic since it is a convention of the constitution that the sovereign must invite the leader of the party which won a majority in the House of Commons to form a government. If no party has a majority or if the party having a majority has no recognized leader, the Queen's duty is to select a prime minister consulting anyone she wishes.

The Queen's closest official contacts are with the Prime Minister whom she receives once every week, when in London, and through him with the Cabinet. She also sees other ministers, generally in order to discuss the affairs of their departments. She sees all the Cabinet papers, the Cabinet agenda, correspondence and other important documents. The Queen is the second after the Prime Minister best informed person in the United Kingdom, as information is one of the important attributes of Queen's power.

The Queen is responsible for dissolving Parliament, and this is normally done at the request of the Prime Minister. The appointment or dismissal of ministers is also carried out on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Acts involving the use of "royal prerogative" powers are now performed by government ministers, and the minister is politically responsible for the royal act. The Queen's speech in the Opening of Parliament is prepared by the Prime Minister and contains the outline of the program for the session. That is why it is also said that the Queen has duties and rights but has no power. Of her many rights the most important are: the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn. And with them the monarch has a good deal more power than is commonly supposed.

The Queen has the constitutional right in certain circumstances to disregard her ministers' advice and this is a strong reserve weapon for the case of need. The Queen is, in fact, the only permanent member of the Cabinet having first­hand knowledge of all its secret papers. Since her accession to the throne the Queen has given audience to 12 Prime Ministers. It is unlikely that the Queen should always be in sympathy with her Prime Minister. And though officially she may not have any political views her silent or other way of approval or disapproval of their actions, which usually are revealed by the press, indicate the Queen's ability to support or undermine her Prime Minister. With her right to be informed, to warn and to be consulted she can by no means influence state affairs greatly.

MONARCHY AND DEMOCRACY

In Britain, the country that prides itself on championing democracy, existence of a monarchy seems to be irrational. Despite the obvious contradiction between democracy and monarchy, the Queen and the Royal Family have remained immensely popular as the symbol of the state, the symbol of the unity of the nation, the symbol of the stability and the guarantee of smooth changes of government, because officially the Monarch's politics are those which are carried out by the government of the day.

In the 19th century, seeing that they could not rely only on the support of the diminishing aristocracy, Queen Victoria and her husband Albert began making royalty more public, consciously offering to the nation a model of family life. With Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887 the government consciously remodelled monarchy, laying emphasis on its ancient rituals as embodying the soul of the nation. And the people liked it. Since World War I when the ruling monarch King George V began to visit working class areas and attended the first Football Cup Final at Wembley chatting with people, there was a strong tendency to speak of close relationship between common people and the Royal Family, to speak of England as one happy family. This feeling and popularity of the Monarchy was still more strengthened by the refusal of George VI to leave London during air attacks on the capital during World War . By remaining in Buckingham Palace after it was hit and by visiting the most badly bombed parts of London George VI and his consort, Elizabeth (the Queen Mother), became the most loved people of Britain. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth II who ascended the throne in 1952, the Monarchy has gone from strength to strength causing great national and international interest. It has become an ideal which is deeply cultivated and supported by almost 80 %of its population.

ANNUALCEREMONIES AND DAILY ROUTINE

Numerous functions and ceremonial duties make the Monarch's every day very busy.

In compiling the Queen's diary of engagements for any one year her Private Secretary will invariably first fill in a number of fixed dates around which the year's program will be arranged. The New Year begins with the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh in residence at Sandringham, the Queen's private home in Norfolk, where the official work will be combined with time for riding and reading.

The Easter break, preceded by giving out Maundy coins¹and by Maundy Service at one of the country's cathedrals, is spent at Windsor Castle. The Queen, whose actual birthday is in April, celebrates her "official" birthday in June, with the splendour of Trooping the Colour which draws many thousands of spectators to London. The celebrations, always held on Saturday, are followed two days later by another historic display of pageantry when at Windsor Castle a service for the Knights of the Garter is preceded by a splendid procession from the Castle itself to St. George's Chapel. All in all annually the Queen presents some 3000 orders, decorations and medals.

Then come three days of horse racing at the nearby racecourse at Ascot — Royal Ascot, before July brings an annual period of residence in the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. There, among other engagements, the Queen holds the first of each summer's garden parties; three more are held in the gardens of Buckingham Palace. In all some 40000 people from all sections of the community, including guests of the country, attend these parties each year.

A summer break at the Queen's private home in Scotland — Balmoral Castle is usually preceded by a cruise in the Royal yacht "Britannia", followed by the regular autumn schedule — the State Opening of Parliament and the events marking among many". Fascination and reverence go so far that even ordinary items used by the Queen on a royal visit somewhere acquire sanctity and may be put on view for people to see. "Nowhere is a nonruling person more revered than in England", remarked F. Englels a century ago, and the words remain true today.

Yet from time to time the question if the nation should pay for that undemocratic institution is raised. Monarchy is indeed a very expensive institution. The Queen gets an allowance of about two million pounds a year, secured from inflation. All the members of the Royal Family also get considerable annual allowances, known as the Civil List, which is free of tax.

Though the Queen is reputed to be the wealthiest person in Britain and one of the wealthiest in the world and though her wealth is free of taxes (she pays them voluntarily now) the Civil List is provided to cover the expenses of the Royal Family in carrying out its public duties. Its not a salary and is provided for a 10-year period on an assumed rate of inflation for the period. So at the beginning of the decade, in 1991, the Queen was allocated an annual income of 7,9 million pounds, even though her predicted expenditure for 1991 was only 5,9 million pounds. But if the actual rate of inflation is less than the predicted one, there is no mechanism for the Queen to return the savings to government, they become the Queen's property. The I0-yearly payment is agreed upon because an annual request from the Queen for funds is thought to be undignified.

EXPENSIVE INSTITUTION

In addition to the Civil List there are some expensive items paid for by the taxpayers: the Royal yacht "Britannia", a floating palace and a hospital ship with 250 men making its crew and the team responsible for the upkeep, costing the taxpayers 9,2 million pounds (by 1991). There is also a Royal train (the cost of its maintaining was 2,3 million pounds in 1990), two helicopters and three planes. One irritated journalist wrote in 1988: "Have a royal family if you must. But have a quiet one away from the tabloid headlines, have a frugal one... have a democratic one whom nobody curtsies. And have one which pays for itself. But the majority of people wish to have something stable and sacred in this constantly changing world.

The debates about the role and cost of the Monarchy have always existed and will go on. In cases of upheavals and sharp criticism of the Monarchy the opponents are being reminded that 7 million pounds spent on it equals the sum of money spent on advertising washing powder, which only cleans and whitens clothes, while the Monarchy serves to clean and whiten the whole social and political system of the country.

Queen Elizabeth II is 40th monarch (since 1066), the oldest and longest-ruling monarch in the 20th century.

BRITISH PARLIAMENT

HISTORY AND STRUCTURE

Like the Monarchy, Parliament in Britain is an ancient institution dating from the beginning of the 13th century, though officially it was established in 1265 by Simon de Montfort. It is the third oldest parliament in the world in action (it was preceded by Althing of Iceland and the Parliament of the Isle of Man).

Parliament is the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom. The overriding function of Parliament is legislating bills, making bills lawful. But Parliament is not only law-making body, it is also a law-enforcing body, i. e. it has judicial functions. British Parliament is free to make any laws it wishes. It could even prolong its own life if it chose to do so. The only guarantee against parliamentary tyranny is the sense of tradition and reasonableness of its members.

Other functions of Parliament are to raise money through taxation so as to enable the government to function, to question and examine government policy and administration, particularly its financial programme, and to debate or discuss important political issues.

History knew Short and Long Parliament (Short lasted 2 weeks, Long — 12 years) but since 1911 every parliament is limited to a 5-year term of work. The work of Parliament is divided into sessions. Every session starts at the end of October or the beginning of November and lasts 36 weeks up to late August. Annual Opening of Parliament by the Queen is a traditional ceremony, very beautiful and pompous.

British Parliament is composed of two houses — the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords appeared first as King's council of the nobility. The House of Commons originated later, in the second half of the 14th century. "Commons" were the representatives of different local communities who were summoned to provide the King with money. The more money demanded, the more the Commons questioned its use. Because of its financial power, its ability to raise or withhold money, the House of Commons gained power not only in matters of finance but also legislation over both the monarch and also the Lords. So the dynamic power of Parliament lies in the House of Commons.

The Houses work in different places, in the opposite parts of Westminster palace, but their debating Chambers are shaped in the same way which is vitally important. The arrangement of seats in both is of great significance, reflects and maintains the two-party system of Britain. Both the Houses are rectangular (not semicircular as most European Chambers) in shape with rows of benches on either side and a raised platform for the throne in the House of Lords, which is a joint present of Australia and Canada, and the Speaker's Chair in the House of Commons.

To the right of the Speaker are the seats for the Government and its supporters, to his left — for the Opposition. So the debates are face to face debates, not figuratively. Facing the Speaker there are cross benches for Independent members, for those who do not belong to either of the two leading political parties.

There are 5 rows of benches in the House of Commons (4 — in Lords') on both of its sides. Front benches on either side are the seats of the Government (Cabinet members) and the Opposition (Shadow Cabinet members). Hence the division of MPs into front-benchers and back-benchers.

Each of the Houses enjoys certain rights and immunities to protect them in carrying out their duties. They are: freedom of speech in debates, freedom from arrest, the right of access to the Crown (collective privilege for the Commons and individual for peers). The Commons have the right to exclude (disqualify) a MP and declare his seat vacant.

The proceedings in both the Houses are public and visitors are admitted into the Strangers' Gallery. The number of visitors is limited to about 200, no cards or passes are required, but metal-control check is necessary. "First come, first go" — this principle works in both galleries. Since 1803 the proceedings of Parliament have been published the following day as "Hansard". (Luke Hansard was the first to publish reports on Parliamentary procedures. Since 1943 then the paper carries the name.) Proceeding of both Houses are also now televised, the Lords since 1984 and the Commons since 1989.

THE HOUSE OF COMMONS

The House of Commons today is elected with anation-wide representation. Of its 659 members 529 represent constituencies in England, 40 — in Wales, 72 — in Scotland and 18 — inNorthern Ireland (119 MPs are women). When speaking about British Parliament the House of Commons is usually meant. "MP" is addressed only to the members of the House of Commons. When speaking about Parliamentary (or General) Election, election to the House of Commons is meant. So this House is the centre of real political power and activity, most of its members being professional politicians, lawyers, economists, etc.

The party that has won the General Election makes up the majority in the House of Commons and forms the Government. The party with the next largest number of members in the House (or sometimes a combination of other parties) forms the official Opposition, and the Leader of the Opposition is a recognised post in the House of Commons.

The MPs sit on two sides of the hall, one side for the] governing party and the other for the opposition. There are seats for only 437 MPs. One of the most important members in the House of Commons Is the Speaker who despite his name is the one who actually never speaks. The Speaker is the Chairman, or presiding MP of the House of Commons. He is elected by a vote of the House at the beginning of each new Parliament to preside over the House and enforce the rules of order. He cannot debate or vote. He votes only in case of a tie, i. e. when voting is equal and, in this case he votes with the Government. The main job of the Speaker is to maintain strict control over debates, to keep fair play between the parties, the Government and opposition, between back-benchers and front-benchers. The Speaker is responsible for the orderly conduct of business, and is required to act with scrupulous partiality between Members in the House. He insists that MPs call each other "Honourable Member", address the Ministers as "Right Honourable Members", bow to him on entering and leaving, address all the speeches to him "Dear Speaker, Sir". He must forbid grossly insulting language. It is the Speaker who selects MPs to speak and when an MP is about to finish his speech several MPs bob up trying to catch the Speaker's eyes and get his permission to talk. The order of speakers is not arranged in advance, so the tradition of catching the Speakers eye affords him enormous powers either to restrict or to widen criticism of a bill by selecting the "right kind" of MP. The Speaker is assisted by three deputy speakers.

40000 words are said on every working day of the House. But most of the speeches are not intended to influence thought or action because most important decisions are nowadays made behind the scenes, behind the Speaker's Chair, in Smoking Room or in the Cabinet. And when the time comes the Speaker and the whips will see to the fact that the vote should go with the Government. The whips are party functioneers, party managers, who receive special salaries for their duties. They arrange each day program in Parliament and tell MPs when they must attend debates. They inform, instruct, dictate and enforce the views of the front-benchers (the Government) on the back-benchers. The strict party discipline obliges them to follow the instructions of the whips. A backbencher is an ordinary MP who is not expected to display talents of an orator, wisdom of a statesman or initiate something in legislature. His only duty is to follow the whips' instructions. Each leading party has officially recognized whips as well as the Chief Whip of the Government and the Chief Whip of the Opposition.

The Commons usually meet in the afternoon, sitting until about 10.30 p. m. and sometimes beyond midnight. On Fridays they sit from 9.30 a. m. to 3 p. m. They finish work early so a to be able to return to their constituency for the weekend to busy themselves with local matters, complaints and other formal duties.

In the Commons debating chamber there are seats for only 370 members and, except on matters of great interest and importance, the presence of all members is not necessary. 40 MPs is enough to secure (make up) a quorum.

MPs are paid salaries, approximately twice the average national wage but substantially less than most MPs could earn outside the House of Commons (57485 pounds in 2003). Only these members of the House of Commons have permanent seats in the House: the Speaker, the Father of the House (the oldest member in the House),, the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition.

THE HOUSE OF LORDS

The House of Lords appeared first as king's council consisting of lords and barons. The House is decorated with coats of arms of peers, with 6 large frescos and 18 bronze statues of the barons who forced King John to sign Magna Carta (the Great Charter) in 1215.

Now the House is a non-elected, hereditary upper chamber. It comprises 26 Lords Spiritual (2 of which are archbishops of Canterbury and York, the rest — senior bishops of the Church of England), 91 hereditary peers, 568 life peers and peeresses created under the Life Peerages Act of 1958, rewarded for specially good service. The title is not inherited by their children. 1/4 of life peers are women, Margaret Thatcher among them. The total number of persons thus qualified to sit in the House of Lords is in excess of 703 including the judges of the Supreme Court of Judicature (the Court of Appeal and the High Court of Justice) which act as Britain's final court of appeal. The Queen belongs to the House of Lords so there is a throne in the Lords' Chamber from where she makes her State Opening Speech.

There is also a woolsack — the seat of the Lord Chancellor who presides in the House of Lords. Unlike the Speaker in the House of Commons the Lord Chancellor is not impartial, as he is a government officer, responsible for the administration of justice, and an automatic member of the Cabinet. Although he presides over the House he is not concerned with order. Any peer has the power to rise in his place and move thus demonstrating his disapproval to a fellow peer having the floor. No one calls to order. Woolsack was introduced at the beginning of the 14th century by Edward III as a symbol of prosperity and commodity, it is packed with wool from England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, symbolizing unity of the four parts of the country.

Almost a century ago the Lords had the power of absolute veto over any legislation passed by the House of Commons. After a great struggle this was finally abolished by the Parliament Act of 1911. But it left the Lords with the power to delay a bill for two years and since 1949 the period reduced to one year. After one year the bill is passed even without the Lords agreement.

The House of Lords is of Tory majority composed largely of company directors, landlords, bankers, steel and oil magnates, newspaper proprietors and so on. Its main function is to defend the interests of the propertied people, to criticize the Labour Government, to delay, amend or bury altogether the bills which went contrary to their interests. For its utterly conservative character it is often called "the House of obstruction" or "a hangover from a past age". That's why from time to time Labour Governments and working people demanded abolition of the House of Lords as an undemocratic anachronism.

The power of delaying a bill for a year is still a great privilege of the Lords. During a year the political situation may change in favour of the Conservatives, the propaganda work may divert the attention from the uneasy bill, it may be forgotten or amended unrecognizably leaving nothing of its essence. So this privilege may play into the hands of the ruling class.

In 1958 the idea of elevating to the peerage certain people who have rendered political or public service to the nation was launched. Such people are awarded the title of life peer and elevated to the House of Lords (Life peers do not pass on the titles when they die.) At some periods the idea was effectively used to get rid of dangerous, revolutionary-minded people, rebels within the House of Commons. Their strenuous efforts in fighting against social injustice were appreciated and rewarded by the title of life peer. Many former trade-union leaders have thus become Lords of the House and lost their revolutionary spirit.

Of all the parliaments in the world, the lowest quorum needed to adopt a decision is the British House of Lords. Three Lords present will make a quorum and will be capable to take any decision. Lords are far freer to vote according to their own convictions rather than party policy than are Members of the Commons.

A peer who attends a debate receives salary in addition to travelling expenses. Average daily attendance is only about 300 and most of these are life peers, who retain interest in the state affairs.

In 1998 the Government, as part of its reform of the House of Lords, introduced legislation to deprive hereditary peers (by then numbering 750) of their 700-year-old right to sit and vote in the upper chamber. A compromise, however, allowed 92 of them — who were elected by their fellow peers — to remain as temporary members. The legislation went into effect in late 1999. The removal of the hereditary principle means that the second chamber becomes more democratic, more broadly representative of modern Britain.

THE WORK OF PARLIAMENT

Each parliamentary session begins with the State Opening of parliament, a ceremonial occasion when the Queen announces the program of the work of Parliament for the coming session. Routine working day of MPs begins in the afternoon (2.30) and lasts until about 10.30 p. m. though sometimes it may be beyond midnight. Lord's working day begins in the morning lasting till afternoon, they do not work on Friday.

The general way and details of conducting business in Parliament is governed by "standing orders" which resulted from custom and precedent.

After brief opening formalities the working day of Parliament begins with Question Time, lasting about an hour. Ministers are asked from 40 to 70 questions on any points MPs choose. But questions should be handed to the officials of the House at least 48 hours beforehand. The answer to the question is prepared for the ministers by civil servants. There is no means of compelling a minister to give a truthful answer. Answers are often given without supplying any information at all. An ex-civil servant defined it as follows: "It might be said cynically but with some measure of truth that the perfect reply to an embarrassing question is one that is brief, appears to answer the question completely, if challenged can be proved accurate,., and discloses nothing".

Naturally, both the Government and the Opposition use this period to reveal the weaknesses of their opponents. So after a minister's formal answer supplementary questions may be asked. A minister and his staff preparing answers should anticipate what questions may be asked. The aim of supplementary questions is to outmaneouvre a minister and reveal a weakness in the Government policy or to persuade the Government to modify or change its course of action. On two afternoons each week the Prime Minister is to answer questions on general policy matters. These occasions are usually the most lively.

After the question-time the House of Commons goes on to the main debate of the day to which it can give 6 hours or more. It often concerns a broad issue of foreign or home policy, or it may be the examination of the contents of a bill, as Parliament's unique and overriding function is the making of laws. The starting point is the drafting of a bill. The preparation of the text of the bill takes many months with long consultations involving civil-servant and legal experts.

Proposals of abill sometimes take the form of "white papers", stating government policy, which can be debated before a bill is introduced. "Green papers" are published when the Government wants a full public discussion before it formulates its own proposals. When at last the draft receives approval of the Cabinet it is ready to be submitted to Parliament. It should pass through both Houses and it may begin its journey in either of the Houses, but usually the bills are introduced first in the House of Commons. The procedure of passing a bill is similar in both Houses. The first stage of the bill's progress is still known as "reading", although the bill is no longer read aloud. This is a remainder of the days when printed copies were not generally available and the two Houses had to be informed of the contents of the bill by hearing a clerk read it aloud. Nowadays the first reading stage is a formality. It is during the second reading that crucial debates take place perhaps about a week later. The Minister or MP in charge of the bill explains to the House the whole purpose of the bill and the means proposed for putting it in effect. Then the main debates begin. Some MPs may support the bill, others may oppose it.

When various speeches have been made for and against the bill, the Speaker will then ask whether the bill is to pass the second reading and to go on to the next stage. If the House is not unanimous in favour of the bill, if there is disagreement the Speaker (or the Lord Chancellor) calls for a division. The members leave their seats and pass into the lobbies through "Aye" (yes) or "No" doors thus showing which way they are voting. Two tellers — one on each side — count the votes as the MPs go through the doors and secretaries put down their names. Before the lobby doors close, a bell rings throughout the House 6 minutes to enable MPs, wherever they may be in the House, to vote. Party Whips stand outside the door of the lobby into which they expect their MPs to pass. Unless it is a free vote, members who ignore party policy risk the strong displeasure of the party leadership. Because of this British parliamentary system has been termed by a long-serving member of both Houses a form of "elective dictatorship".

When the numbers have been taken the members return to their seats and the Speaker (the Lord Chancellor) reads out the results of the voting. If the bill has a majority of votes, it has passed the second reading. It is then usually sent to a committee for detailed, clause by clause, word by word examination. Large committee rooms on the upper floor of \\festminster Palace (the Committee Corridor) constitute one of the busiest parts of the palace. After days or weeks in a committee the bill then comes back to the House. When the committee reports to the House the conclusion of its work, there may be further discussion.

On the third reading the final text of the bill — perhaps rather different from that originally printed — is then approved or rejected. After that the bill goes through the same stages in the House of Lords. There it can be delayed but not rejected. Then it returns to the House of Commons and if the Commons accept the amendments, in case there are any, the bill is ready for its last stage, the final approval given on behalf of the Queen. Her signature will enact the bill, that is turn it into an Act of Parliament. Royal assent has not been refused since 1707.

Besides the Government bills, there are the Opposition and Private Members' bills. Any MP has the right to propose his bill. Mostly they are business bills. Only 10 days in each session are allowed for the debates on these bills. And those 10.days are Fridays, short working days. So putting forward private bills is not encouraged. There are 20 opposition days each session which allow the opposition to choose the subject for debate.

Parliament is not only a law-making body, it is also a law-enforcing body, that is it has judicial functions. The main judicial work of Parliament today is that carried out daily by the House of Lords. This House serves as the final Court of Appeal for Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Appeals may be heard either in the Chamber of the House or in the Appellate Committee. Judgement is always given in the House itself -normally at a morning sitting specially held for this purpose. Only peers who hold or have held high judicial office sit to hear appeals, and they are sometimes presided over by the Lord Chancellor, who is the head of the English judicial system.

GOVERNMENT

Her Majesty's Government, in spite of its name, derives its authority and power from its party representation in Parliament. It is so because when a party wins a majority of votes in Par­liament it forms the Government — Her Majesty's Government. Her Majesty's government governs in the name of the Queen and is responsible for the administration of national affairs. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen but automatically it is the leader of the party which wins a majority. And all other ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The number of ministers in the Go­vernment may vary from 80 to 100, all the ministers are members of either of the two Houses, but the majority of them are members of the House of Commons. Naturally, the Prime Minister cannot belong to the House of Lords. Functionally _ministers may be classified as:

1) departmental ministers -— who are in charge of government departments (they are also known as Secretaries of State);

2) non-departmental ministers, or ministers "without portfolio". They include the holders of traditional offices: the Lord Privy Seal , the Lord President of the Council, the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster;

3) ministers of State — usually appointed as subordinate to government departments where the work is particularly heavy or complex and where it involves frequent travelling abroad;

4) junior ministers, or Parliamentary Under-secretaries -assistants of Secretaries of State.

The central institution, the core of the British Government is the Cabinet. The Cabinet is composed of about 20 ministers personally selected by the Prime Minister, who is the directing head and force of the Cabinet as well as of the whole government. Cabinet-making is a very important part of a Prime Minister's job and a Cabinet remains very much the expression of Prime Minister's personality. He not only appoints ministers but can require their resignation. He can replace a minister or break up the entire Cabinet. He controls the agenda of business to be dealt with at Cabinet meetings. He can dissolve the House of Commons and thus bring about a General Election at any time.

The Prime Minister can introduce peers, and if necessary make peers. He can bring in ballast and he can — up to a point — demote his rivals.

In the middle of the 19th century the doctrine of collective responsibility was accepted. That means that the policy of ministers must be consistent (in agreement) with the policy of the Government as a whole. Once the Government policy on a particular matter has been decided each minister is expected to support it. If he cannot agree with it or if he lost the confidence of the majority of his colleagues a Cabinet minister has no choice but to resign.

The Cabinet is the most powerful and strongly rooted organ of government in Britain. The powers of the Cabinet are immensely large in every sphere of government. The Cabinet of Ministers introduce legislation, control finance, arrange the time-table of the House of Parliament, conduct foreign affairs, control the colonies, exercise supervision over every department of administration.

The Cabinet meets in private and its proceedings are strictly secret (confidential). Its members are bound by their oath not to disclose information about its proceedings. Publication of the Cabinet or State papers is forbidden (only after 30 years of being in existence they may be available for inspection or publication). The Cabinet meets for a few hours once or twice a week during parliamentary sittings and less frequently when parliament has vocations. Much of the work of the Cabinet is done through committees which are the "engine-room" of government. Government secrecy is widely discussed and criticized. While in opposition, Conservative and Labour MPs have called for more open government but almost without exception they have all maintained secrecy when in power.

The Cabinet is constitutionally responsible to Parliament and can be forced to resign but in practice it is the Cabinet that dominates Parliament. Its ministers are front-benchers in Parliament. The final decision on all the questions of policy rests with the Cabinet. Every matter of first class importance goes before the Cabinet for final decision or approval.

According to constitution, power should rest where the public can see it, but in practice Britain is governed by the Cabinet, by a largely hidden system named "elective dictatorship". Even legislation, the overriding function of Parliament, is done by the Government and its supporters, because any Government enjoys a majority in the House.

There is a tendency to develop an Inner Cabinet, consisting of the Prime Minister and three or four senior ministers in whom he has exceptional confidence, for the daily work and conduct of the most important business.

The party out of power elects by secret ballot its Leader, Deputy Leader, Chief Whip and 12 members who together form the Shadow Cabinet. Its aim is to watch closely and criticise the Government and if possible to supplant the party in power.

The seat of the Government is Whitehall, its hub being Downing Street 10, a short walk from Parliament. Ministers' salaries are from 86173 to 95281; the Cabinet ministers' — 130347, the Prime Minister's - 178922 pounds (2003).

CIVIL SERVICE

A very important and extremely highly valued body in the machinery of government is the Civil Service. Parliament may debate, resolve, enact, vote but it cannot accomplish. The Cabinet may initiate and control, but it cannot carry out. MPs are elected for 5 years' term, ministers are appointed for 5 years, they are changeable, not permanent. But the Civil Service is a permanent body of officials that keeps the wheels of government turning. The position and function of the Civil Service remain the same whichever political party may be in power.

Civil servants are servants of the Crown. The constitutional and political role of the Civil Service is to help the Government of the United Kingdom and the administrations formulate the policies, carry out decisions and administer public services for which they are responsible. Execution of policy depends on the work of hundreds of thousands of public servants going daily to their offices. They comprise about half a dozen grades, or classes, of officials, such as administrative, managerial, executive, clerical and so on. They may be found in nearly all the great Departments of State. The most important is the administrative class.

This class, numbering about 1200, occupies all the controlling positions in the Service. 3/4 of its members are recruited by a severe open competitive examination from the most able university graduates while the remainder (1/4) are promoted from subordinate groups of classes. The candidate should satisfy certain conditions of character, health, age, nationality. The employed officials are required to observe the code of conduct preventing them from betrayal of trust, they cannot offer themselves as candidates to Parliament, they are restricted in participation in municipal elections, they can not be indulged in political or party controversy, they should be reserved and impartial in political matters, they may not belong to trade unions or professional associations. They should make a corps of administrators whose competence, integrity and devotion to the public weal is unquestionable and on whose loyalty, obedience and neutrality the Government of the day can rely. Civil servants must be as loyal to an incoming Government as to the outgoing one. To serve the State well and faithfully is regarded in Britain as one of the highest callings to which a man can devote his life. The social status of the Civil Service is extremely high and unrelated to its material rewards.

The heart of the Civil Service is the Cabinet Office, whose Secretary is the senior civil servant at any given time, responsible for the smooth running of the whole Civil Service. In each ministry or department the senior official is Permanent Secretary and his immediate subordinates are Under-secretaries and Assistant Secretaries. They work with the ministers assisting them in implementation of government policy. In practice it is a two-way process: cooperation, on the one hand, and permanent trial of strength, on the other, because civil servants' task is to minimise departures from known and trusted methods of government. The Civil Service is an effective breaking mechanism producing a hundred well-argued answers against initiative and change. In Whitehall it is said in jest that the duty of a minister is only to hold a gun and it is the Permanent Secretary who will instruct him what to aim at and when to pull the trigger. But when fighting for the interests of their department or ministry against competing ones civil servants demonstrate traditionally strong loyalty to their minister and together with him they will make the strongest of allies.

WESTMINSTER PALACE AND TRADITIONS IN PARLIAMENT

Parliament works in Westminster Palace which since Edward the Confessor's times was kings' and queens' residence, then it was shared by Parliament but since the 16th century (Henry VIII) it is entirely in Parliamentary use. The House of Parliament is one building 280 m long, stretching along the Thames and overlooking it. Its width is 90 m. This building was erected in the middle of the 19th century, as the old one was destroyed by the Fire of London in 1834. Its architect was Charles Barry, his assistant and decorator — Augustus Pugin. It is a magnificent gothic-style carved-stone building with 1200 apartments, 100 staircases, 130 statues, 3,2 km of passages, 11 courtyards, 26 policemen, 34 doorkeepers, 250 people looking after the upkeeps of the palace.

Westminster Palace is richly decorated with statues of famous politicians of the past. So it is said in jest that British Parliament has the third House consisting of 130 statesmen immortalised in marble and bronze. When Parliament is in session Union Jack flies from the Victoria Tower by day and a light is burning on the Clock Tower with the famous Big Ben by night.

The 336-foot Victoria Tower is the largest and tallest square tower in the world. Through its archway the monarch enters for the State Opening of Parliament each November. More than 6000 Acts of Parliament are stored in the Victoria Tower.

The Clock Tower is one of the best known landmarks in the world. It is 320 ft high and is popularly called Big Ben, by the name of a four-faced bell clock striking the hours. Actually Big Ben is the name of the biggest of the 5 bells, the proper name for the tower being St. Stephen's Tower. Big Ben is 150 years old and it is the most accurate clock of its size in the world. There are two versions of the origin of the name. Some people believe that the tower got its name from Benjamin Caunt, a famous boxer. Others think that it was from Sir Benjamin Hall, an enormous Welshman who worked at the Palace when the clock was being built. There are 334 steps up to the belfry (the place where bells are) and 59 more up to the lantern at the top. Each number on the clock face is 60,9 cm long, the hour hand is 274,3 cm long, the minute hand is 426 cm long. It travels at 30,4 cm a minute. The weight of the Big Ben is 13,5 tons, the same as of 250-300 men. On the 11th floor there is a small prison cell which used to be for anyone who committed a crime inside the Houses of Parliament. In the past the clock used to be winded by hand (until 1913) and it took 30 hours a week to wind it. Now the job is done by an electric motor. The State Opening of Parliament is a glamourous annual ceremony opening every new session of Parliament. The Queen's gilded coach parades from Buckingham Palace through Whitehall to Westminster, escorted by brilliantly uniformed and superbly mounted Household Cavalry. As the Queen enters the Houses of Parliament the air shakes with the booming of heavy guns, and all London knows that the processes that have so long protected England from oppression have once again been renewed with all their age-old ceremony.

The State Opening of Parliament is a procedure which is strictly scheduled, its every minute is significant. Yet when the Queen is seated on the throne there comes a long and awkward pause. Since the Civil War in the 17th century, a battle between King Charles I and Parliament over who should rule the country, when Oliver Cromwell defeated and abolished monarchy (Charles I was beheaded) and established a republic for 11 years, after the Restoration no monarch has ever been allowed into the House of Commons. So, sitting on a throne in the House of Lords, the Queen sends her representative, Black Rod, to knock on the door of the Commons to ask the 650 members of Her Majesty's House if they will go and listen to her speech outlining Parliamentary business of the new session. Black Rod is to cross the building to reach the opposite end of the Palace where the House of Commons is situated. The door is closed in front of him. He is to knock humbly 3 times. The door is opened and he announces the Queen's order. And ministers in pairs hurry after the messenger: the Prime Minister (the leader of the ruling party) with the Leader of the Opposition, ministers in power with the counterpart ministers of the Shadow Cabinet. But there are no seats for them in the House of Lords. So they crowd at the entrance and listen to the Queen standing at the door.

The State Opening Speech is drafted by the Queen's Government (Prime Minister) and describes what the Government intends to implement during the forthcoming session. During the next week or so the Government and Opposition debate aspects of the Queen's Speech in the House of Commons and vote on the amendments which the Opposition proposes. Since the speech is a statement of policy, defeat on any such vote would oblige the Government to resign.

The "throning" of a Speaker for the House of Commons is a tradition. He is generally elected by the common consent of all parties and is dragged from the floor of the House forcibly by two MPs, He puts up a great show of resistance. This ceremony dates back to the period before the Bourgeois Revolution, when the Speaker, as the representative of the Commons, had the unpleasant task of presenting its demands to the King. Sometimes he might lose his head for it or be thrown into the Tower.

Having being chosen the Speaker is carefully segregated. He is aloof from any political involvement, he lives in a big gothic house inside the Palace of Westminster, earns good money and retires with a peerage and a pension. His job requires a special-temperament — phlegmatic but firm, as his main job is to keep fair play between the parties and between back-benchers and front-benchers, to protect the House from outside influences, and this can justify much of the pomp. He insists that MPs call each other "honourable members", bow to him on entering and leaving and address all their speeches to him. But all too often the Speaker's role degenerates into having to control childish squabbles and "unmanaged" debates with outbreaking of anger or uproar.

Red Line. There are 5 rows of benches running the length on either side of the Speaker. Her Majesty's Government sitting to the right of the Speaker and Her Majesty's Opposition sitting to the left of him have always held face-to-face debates. Sometimes those debates became so heated that MPs crossed swords with each other and fights began. Therefore a rule was imposed prohibiting members from crossing the space marked on the floor by red lines. This space is the width of two drawn swords. The red line in front of each front bench still marks the limit beyond which an MP may not approach the opposite side. If he steps on the lines the speaker immediately calls him to order and he is to apologise.

Ladies in the Gallery were allowed since 1762 but Sheridan's wife could hear her husband speak only dressed up as a man. A separate screen gallery was built for ladies. The question of segregation was finally settled by the enemy bomb which destroyed the House of Commons in 1941. Today men and women sit together in the Strangers' gallery which is open from 5.30 p. m. to about 10.30 p. m. on weekdays except Friday (from 9.30 a. m. to 3 p. m.)

Guy Fawkes. Before the official Opening of Parliament at the beginning of each session vaults (underground chambers, cellars) of the House of Lords are searched by the Queen's Body Guard. This ceremony commemorates the unsuccessful attempt to blow up King James of England and his Parliament by Guy Fawkes and other conspirators on November 5, 1605.

Talking.British people are rather critical about their Parliament. They admit that for any visitor to the either of the two Houses it becomes as clear as the Emperor's clothes that all that most members do about power is to talk about it. Talk is their business, and how they talk! They talk apparently to no one. The noble lords go on addressing the noble lords, they address this house, the "Right Honourable Member" or "Mr Speaker, Sir"; but Mr Speaker is chatting to a passing member, the Right Honourable Member left half an hour ago, and this house has just realized it's time for a drink and is emptying quickly through the swing doors. But never mind, the words still roll out. Parliament was once described as a "talking-shop". 40000 words are said on its every working day. Most of the speeches are not intended to influence thought or action. Even angry Parliamentary debate has the same effect upon national events as a slammed door has upon domestic arguments. 9/10 of what goes on at Westminster is an elaborate piece of play­acting. When the time comes the Whips and the Speaker will see to the fact that the vote should go with the Government.

But there is another side of the work of Parliament. By speeches Parliament limited moaarchs, tamed tyrants, averted revolutions. In fact an MP can say whatever he likes, raise whatever problem, thus leaving no closed zones or white spots. The problem may be rejected, talked to death but can not be concealed from public. Parliamentary democracy is the main factor of the stability of the British political system. They joke that British Parliament can do anything but turn man into woman.

Hats off, strangers! The sitting of each House is preluded by processions of the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker into their Houses. Inspector of the police (Sergeant-at-arms)¹announces "Hats off, strangers! Speaker in Chair". Strangers and MPs bow to the Speaker, Prayers are then read by the bishop on duty for that day. The prayers include a petition that members may lay aside "all private interests, prejudices and partial affections", so that the public wealth, peace and tranquillity of the Realm may be maintained. The Speaker wears a horsehair wig, black silk robe, knee breeches and buckled shoes. He is attended by a uniformed Sergeant-at-arms who is also bearer of the Mace².

Forms of address; Dear Speaker, Sir; the Honourable Member — to MPs; the Right Honourable Member — to ministers, the Honourable and Learned — to the Queen's council¹ lawyers (advisers to the Crown).

Some terms for MPs: front-bencher, back-bencher, the Chief Whip of the Government, the Chief Whip of the Opposition, Father of the House, Baby of the House, Leader of the House, Maiden speech.

Holidays.A session of the House of Commons lasts for about 160-170 days (in the House of Lords it is shorter) with several intervals during its work. By present custom, a session is divided into 5 periods: from November (when the session is opened) till Christmas (about 3 weeks), from January till Easter (2 weeks), from Easter till Whitsun² (2 weeks), from Whitsun till the end of July or late August (2 months).

BRITISH CONSTITUTION

In this important respect Britain differs from other countries because it has no written constitution.

Constitution is usually adopted at a turning point in the history of a country.InBritain for more than 300 years there have been no upheavals, no turning points since the time of the Glorious Revolution when the Bill of Rights was recognized and signed by Mary and William (1688-1689). That document deprived monarchy of its absolute power and limited it greatly. No constitution was written down either then or since but the Bill of Rights may be regarded as one which established a Constitutional Monarchy in Britain.

To bring the changes of life in agreement with the time a number of regulations were adopted known as Acts of Parliament. More than 6000 acts of Parliament are stored in Victoria Tower of \\festminster. Some of them are of constitutional significance and form Statute of Westminster. When speaking of British Constitution usually the following three main sources are mentioned: Statute of Westminster¹, Common Law and Conventions.

Statute of Westminster makes the Bible of the British constitution, it comprises the most important Acts of Par­liament, which regulate political system of the country and rights and duties of British citizens. They are:

1) Magna Carta — the Great Charter of English liberties, forced from King John Lackland by English barons. It was signed by him on June 15, 1215. Lords' Council set by the Charta was the first limitation of monarch's absolute power and the beginning of future Parliament.

2) The Petition of Rights signed by Charles I in 1628. It substantially limited monarch's absolute power and extended the rights of Parliament and courts and protected the property of the bourgeoisie. It was signed by King Charles but ignored, that caused the English Revolution headed by Cromwell.

3) Habeas Corpus Act² 1679 proclaimed sovereignty of person and his property, restrain or extension of the person's liberty in courts.

4) The Bill of Rights — the statute of 1689 signed by William III and Mary II. With minor changes it confirmed the Petition of Right and proclaimed the foundation of Constitutional Monarchy.

5) Statute of Westminster — the Act of Parliament of 1931 regulating the relations between the UK and its dominions.

It confirmed full sovereignty of the former British dominions.

The second source of the British Constitution is Common Law. In most countries there exist the Civil Code and Criminal Code. In Britain there is the so called Common Law based on precedent, modified by a constant process of interpretation. Since the times of Queen Elizabeth I every case in court has been recorded. When a judge comes to a legal decision he is to agree it with similar or analogous precedents, i. e. to find a precedent, be guided by it, correlate his decision upon the precedent. Common Law is guided by the motto "What is not proved directly forbidden is allowed".

Conventions— the third source of the British Constitution — are unwritten laws. Though not codified or written they have a binding force as rules of the Constitution. If anyone violates those unwritten rules — he may lose his post, find himself in isolation, his career may be ruined. Conventions regulate the relations on different levels of the society from top to bottom: between the Monarchy and the Parliament, the Monarchy and the Government, between the Parliament and the Government, the Government and the Civil Service and so on. For example: the divine right of the Queen to choose her Prime Minister is a convention as well as the Queen's all other prerogatives; a member of the Government (Cabinet) cannot criticise his Government, he is either to agree or to resign — that is collective responsibility convention. Many traditional ceremonies are conventions too (Queen's Opening of Parliament, her belonging to the House of Lords, inability to enter the House of Commons, the Commons appearance in the House of Lords at the State Opening of Parliament, the duties of the Speaker, etc.)

The absence of the written constitution is regarded by many people as an advantage. They think that because the constitution is not contained in any written document it can be easily altered by the passing of an Act of Parliament or by general agreement to vary, amend, abolish or create a convention. So they think it can more readily be adapted to changing political conditions and ideas, its flexibility saves serious disturbance to existing organs and forms of government.

There is, on the other hand, a strong counter-argument and criticism of the existing political system. The opponents think that Britain's unwritten constitution is no longer a sufficient safeguard of democratic and individual rights, as there is no constitutional protection either for the nation as a whole or for individuals, as neither the Queen nor the Lords can effectively oppose a government which commands the majority in the Commons. An elected government untrammelled (unlimited) by constitutional limits is a menace to people's liberties whether it be a dictatorship of Right or Left, of a majority or a minority.

In 1988 a group of distinguished politicians, lawyers, academics, writers and journalists began to campaign under the title "Charter 88" (harking back to the Charter of 1688) for wide-ranging reforms. They called for a Bill of Rights, protecting individual liberties, for a written constitution which would define and limit the powers of Parliament, because a Bill of Rights without a written constitution limiting Parliament's sovereignty might be worthless. These demands are not groundless. It is undeniable that during the 1980-90s the British Government was found guilty of infringing the European Convention of Human Rights more than any other member of the European Community.

These points are seen quite the other way by the opponents. They regard the present system as virtue rather than a defect as it ensures strong government. So the debate should be about how to find the balance between strong government and strong democracy. The calls for constitutional reforms are unlikely to disappear; they may become even more insistent. The problem is that no government once elected will wish to restrict its powers. So the British people come to the conclusion that only a constitutional crisis will persuade them whether or not a written constitution is necessary.

UNIT V

ELECTORAL SYSTEM

The British people have always prided themselves on their electoral system believing it to be one of the most democratic. It is known as a majority system, now often called "first-past-the-post" one. The foundation of the British electoral system is the single-member constituency. The United Kingdom is divided into 650 parliamentary constituencies, each one of which elects a Member of Parliament (MP) to sit in the House of Commons. Each MP represents 66000 electors. A person may represent a constituency even if he does not live there.

Any number of candidates can stand for election in each constituency. The winner is the candidate who gets more votes than any other single candidate, even if the difference is only one vote. This "first-past-the-post" system is simple, clear and familiar, but it means that sometimes the elected candidate represents only the third of those who voted and the candidate who comes second, even very close to the winner, gets nothing.

The weakness of the electoral system was revealed in the 1980s, when the conservatives enjoyed a large majority in the commons although at the elections of 1979, 1983 and 1987 more -people voted against the Conservative Party than for it. In 1987 the Liberal/SDP Alliance received 23,1 % of the total vote but won only 22 seats (3,5 %) in Parliament. This is the reason why all the smaller parties continue their campaign for proportional representation, which would give them far more seats in Parliament.

General Elections in Britain are held every 5 years, as every Parliament (and Government accordingly) is elected for this term. The Prime Minister chooses the date of the next General Elections, but does not have to wait until the end of the 5 years. A time is chosen that will give as much advantage as possible to the political party in power.

About a month before the election the Prime Minister meets a small group of close advisers to discuss the date, which would best suit the party. The date is announced to the Cabinet. The Prime Minister asks the Queen to dissolve the Parliament. Once it is dissolved, all MPs are unemployed.

Party manifestos are published and campaigning begins throughout the country lasting for about 3 weeks with large-scale press, radio and television coverage.

Voting takes place on Polling Day (usually a Thursday). MPs are elected by direct and secret ballot. Citizens of 18 and over have the right to vote (except prisoners, lords and mentallj ill). Voting is not compulsory and about 75 % of the electorate take part in General Elections. On election day the voters go to the polling-station, and record their votes by placing a cros against their candidate's name on the list, and place the paper in a ballot-box. Some people may vote by proxy. The electior officials count up the number of votes and the Returnin; Officer announces the elected candidate. The candidate in constituency who gains most votes is returned as Member of the Commons.

If an MP resigns, dies or is made a peer during the lifetime of a Parliament, a by-election must be held in the constituent (which he represented) to elect a new member.

No candidate requires the backing of a political party in order to stand for election, but today no independent, candidates succeed in being elected. MPs are chosen by the constituency branch of the party from a list of suitable candidates issued by the party headquarters.

The two party dominance has existed since the 18th century. But for more than one hundred years Britain has had two-party state with Labour and the Conservatives taking turns in government. And both dominating parties have constant supporters. About 1/3 of the people vote for the Labour party candidates all the time, another third for the Conservatives. The traditional voting changed in the end of the last century. The electorate chose the Conservatives in four consecutive General Elections and Labour seemed consigned to the dustbin of history. They realised that it would help to move to the centre if it was ever to be elected again. And it was exactly what was done what insured its landslide victory in the next two General Elections (1997, 2001) —they won 63 % seats in the House of Commons. System in Britain promotes and maintains the dominance of the leading parties at the expense of the smaller ones.

The Liberal Democrats, a center party, as well as many small parties, are against the current "first-past-the post" electoral system. This is because, though they come second in many constituencies, they can not win many seats in Parliament. They campaign for a system of proportional representation (PR), in which the number of MPs is based on the number of people who vote for a party in the whole country.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Though Britain is a multiparty democracy its political scene is dominated by a two-party system: one party in power, the other in opposition. Now they are the Conservative and the Labour Parties. The two-party system has evolved since the 18th century when the conflicting groups within Parliament formed opposing parties known as Tories and Whigs.

Political parties exist to promote the interests and ideas of particular classes and groups of the society. So do the parties in Britain today. Uncompromising politicians have not done well in Britain. The parties on the extreme right and the extreme left are remarkable by their absence or by their small size. The National Front (NF), with anti-migration as its only policy, started to enjoy the degree of electoral success in the 1970s. It has since disappeared, but one can still occasionally see the initials "NF" written on walls in inner cities around the country. The NF was succeeded by the British National Party (BNP), which managed to have one candidate elected to a local council in .1993. The British Communist Party (CP) was set up in 1920, but never achieved mass membership. After the collapse of the Russian communists, the CP in Britain went through the same crisis. In 1991 it changed its name to the Democratic Left, and has been rather quiet ever since. The most consistent and successful leftist group has for many years been the Socialist Workers Party (SWP), which is particularly strong among trade unions. The party is very active at every demonstration for human rights or against racism and fascism. There are nationalist parties as well: Plaid Cymru (Welsh party, founded in 1925) and the Scottish National Party (founded in. 1934). Northern Ireland has a number of parties. They include Ulster Unionists (UU), formed in the early part of the 20th century; the Democratic Unionists, founded in 1971 by group that broke way from Ulster Unionists, and some others.

CONSERVATIVE PARTY

The Conservative party emerged to defend the interests of big, reactionary landowners, of the cavaliers who supported the King (Charles I) in his struggle with Parliament, of the conservative gentry and the clergy of the Church of England. They were called Tories — an insult with a touch of racial -prejudice, as the name meant "Irish thief.

The other group consisted of merchants and those landowners linked with commerce and the Scottish Presbyterians who helped then to win in the civil war against the King. The latter had been called Whiggamores, or outlaws, and this name was shortened to Whigs, a term which lasted into the 19th century, but unlike the name Tory, is now obsolete (out of use, forgotten).

Whigs were supporters of the Free Churches and of the expansion of trade and colonies as war brought them good profits. The land-owing Tories, on the other hand, had a more insular outlook and were opposed to warlike policies;

But in 1789 the French Revolution took place. As the Revolution became more popular and violent in the following years and was a dangerous example for British workers, most Whigs rallied to the side of Tories to defend the existing order against Jacobinism at home. After the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 Tories' policies were so repressive, there were so many bans (on meeting and clubs, for example) and raising of tax on all-newspapers, that Whigs saw the danger of such politics. The culminative point was reached in 1819 when a meeting on Parliamentary reform drew 80000 people to St. Peter's Fields in Manchester. It was attacked by yeomanry, a bourgeois mounted force of volunteers: 11 people were killed and 400, including a hundred women, injured. This became known as the massacre of Peterloo, a name made up to compare it ironically with the military victory at Waterloo. By the middle of the 19th century the Tory Party was split. After 1867 the Tory Party emerged as a new, freshened party with a brighter future and as the spokesman of finance-capital. Whigs formed the Liberal Party.

It was Benjamin Disraeli, a brilliant orator, great politician, a man of many talents, who formed the new party of the peoples to freedom, independence and selfgovernrnent, it has supported the work for world disarmament, it has affirmed the duty of richer nations to assist poorer ones, it stood for social justice and the creation of the socialist community with a classless society and with planned economy. It claims to obtain and hold power only through free democratic institutions, by reforms.

The party has always been unique as it comprises collective members which are trade unions, small parties, different social organizations and groups. The proportion of individual members of the party is comparatively small.

The Labour Government undertook some steps to improve the life of the working people. In the 1960s it increased old-age pensions, abolished fees for some medical services, introduced comprehensive schools, which admit pupils without insultive "11 + " exams, and nationalized some important industries. But by and by the policy of the Labours has been shifting rightwards coming closer to that of the Conservatives. The process was precipitated after losing General Elections four times running in the second half of the 20th century. The party decided that nuclear bombs were a good thing after all, that low taxes made sense and that privatization had been a success. Labour finally dropped all its old socialist ideas. It got rid of Neil Kinnock with his Welsh accent and working-class background, and chose as its leader a'public school educated lower with a conservative upbringing — Tony Blair. For the first time the Labour leader was more upper class than the Conservative leader. Blair had done all in his power to cut Labour away from its trade-union ruts. While Tories made a series of mistakes and suffered from the resulting bad publicity, Labour won the 1997 and 2001 elections by a landslide: 63 %seats against 25 %of the Conservatives.

LIBERAL PARTY

The beginning of the Liberal Party goes back to the end of the 17th century as it descended from Whigs, an opposition to the Tory Party in Parliament. Officially it was formed in 1877. During the second half of the 19th century many working people looked to the Liberal Party to provide a policy different from that of the Tory Party and their supporters. So in the middle of the 19th century the Liberals represented the trading and manufacturing classes, supported by popular elements, who pressed for social reforms and extension of the franchise¹. "Civil and Religious Liberty" was taken as the Party's slogan. For long periods up to 1914 the Liberals had a parliamentary majority. While in power they introduced a number of reforms and innovations including free elementary education.

After World War I the Liberal Party was growing weaker, many representatives of the working class and bourgeoisie were leaving the liberals. Having suffered several defeats at the elections the party could never overcome the blow. It declined rapidly as a parliamentary force, its place being taken by the Labour Party which has become an opposition and alternative government to the Conservatives.

In 1988 the Liberal Party merged with the new Social Democratic Party forming the Liberal Democrats.

LIBERAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY

In 1981 a new party was formed to try to break the dominance of the Conservative and Labour. Some Conservatives and extreme right wing of Labours left their own parties to join the new Social Democrats. The new party agreed to fight elections in alliance with the small but long-established Liberals, forming the Alliance. After unsuccessful results of the 1987 Election the Liberal Party merged with the Social Democratic Party (1988) to become the Liberal Democrats. Its aim is to attract the votes of the middle ground between Labour and the Conservatives and opponents of both parties, of those who are disillusioned with their policies. But there parliamentary representation is almost insignificant so far (26 % of vote but 8 % of MPs in 2001 General Elections). That is why it campaigns for a system of proportional representation in Parliament. But the Party plays a certain role with the possibility of tipping the scales between the two largest parties.

The Liberal Democratic Party aims to build a liberal democratic society in which every citizen shall possess liberty, property and security and none shall be enslaved by poverty, ignorance or conformity.

UNIT VI

EDUCATION IN BRITAIN

BRITISH SCHOOL TODAY

British education today is aimed to realise the potential of all, for the good of the individual and society as a whole. The general policy for education which is now being implemented throughout the United Kingdom is much the same with some national variations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. All schools of Great Britain are known as state schools (state supported, state maintained) and independent schools.

Independent schools are fee-paying schools ranging from public schools with centuries-old traditions to private experimental schools.

Schools supported by the state from public funds are of three kinds:

1)county schools — the largest group, provided and maintained by Local Educational Authorities (LEAs) wholly out of public funds, no fees are charged to parents; they are Primary Schools (infant and junior), Comprehensives, some Grammar Schools, Secondary Modern Schools, Sixth Forms;

2)voluntary schools — financially aided and controlled by government but provided by a voluntary body; mostly they are the Church of England schools or Roman Catholic schools;

3)direct-grant schools — completely independent of LEAs, receiving grants from the Department for Education and science; these are mainly Grammar Schools, which receive the grant for taking pupils from the state system

(from a quarter to a half, the rest being fee-paying pupils).

SOME ESSENTIALS

* School education is divided into three stages: primary, secondary and further education. In England and Wales the primary cycle lasts from 5 to 11. Children of 5 enter Infant Schools moving on to Junior School at

* the age of 8 and then on to Secondary School. The transition from Primary to Secondary School is made at the age of 11. Most Secondary Schools in Britain (about 90 %) are Comprehensive Schools. They are state schools which take children of all abilities (84 %).About 6 % of children go to Grammar Schools, state schools which take only students who pass "Eleven Plus" examination.

* About 7 %of children go to private schools, which do not receive any money from the State, parents pay for their children's education. The most expensive private schools are called Public Schools.

* Full-time education is compulsory for 12 years for all children between the ages of 5.and 16.

* All schools, including independent schools, are subject to official (government) inspection and control.

* Local Education Authorities (LEAs) finance most schools and further education at the local level. They employ teachers and allocate budgets to schools. School budgets include books, teachers' salaries and cleaning.

» Schools can apply for "grant-maintained status". This means that they "opt out" of LEA control and receive funding from central government, becoming direct-grant schools.

Every state school has a governing body, responsible for the school's main policies. It includes teachers, parents and members appointed by LEAs. Excepting the core subjects, obligatory for all pupils, the British school syllabus¹ is divided into Arts (or Humanities) and Sciences, which determine the division of the Secondary School pupils into study groups: a Science pupil will study Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Maths), Economics, Technical Drawing, Biology, Geography; an Art pupil will do the English Language and Literature, History, foreign languages, Music, Art, Drama. Besides these subjects they must do some general education subjects like Physical Education (PE), Home Economics for girls and Technical subjects for boys, General Science, Information Technology (IT), Sex Education (SE), Religious Education (RE). Computers play an important part in education. Thesystem of options exists in all kinds of Secondary Schools, In English schools by law all children receive religious education and take part in daily prayers. But parents have the right to withdraw their children from such classes. In all kinds of voluntary school there is opportunity for denominational instruction. Roman Catholic children generally have their own classes. Physical education, including organised games, is a part of the curriculum of all schools. Organised games include tennis, cricket, football, hockey, netball and lacrosse. Medical Inspection and free medical and dental treatment for all children attending state schools is provided. LEAs have a duty under certain conditions to assist financially in the provision of transport for pupils between home and .schools.

Boys and girls are generally taught together in Primary Schools. Most of Secondary Schools are co-educational,mixed schools. But the majority of the Secondary Schools in the independent sector (private schools) are single sex, that is either for boys or for girls. Statistics show that girls get better results when they are separated from boys. Most children go to the school whose "catchment area" they live in. This is usually, though not always, the nearest school to their home.

* Most pupils in British schools wear school uniform, which differ from school to school. The favourite colours for school uniforms are blue, grey, black and maroon.

4 The pupils who violatevarious school regulations may be punished in the following ways: for lateness, truancy they may be reported to the Headmaster or named in school assembly. They maybe detained in school after ordinary hours.

*Corporal punishment has recently been banned in state schools. But in most Public Schools it is still allowed. Caning¹is the usual punishment for serious misbehaviour

. in class, damage and vandalism. Many teachers remark that standards of discipline have fallen since corporal punishment was banned by the Government.

* Each school has its system of rewards: medals and prizes for the best pupils.

4 Schools in Britain have three terms a year, each with a short midterm break for one week (known as "half-terms") and longer holidays at Christmas, Easter and in the summer. All in all schools have 13 weeks' holiday per year.

* All schools assess children'sprogress by their own internal tests at the age of 7, 11 and 14. 16-year-olds take the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). At the age of 16 pupils can leave school or continue their education. Pupils cannot repeat a year in the system which is based strictly on age. However badly they do, pupils go up to the next year. The only exception is GCSEs and A-levels, which pupils can repeat if they need better results. The system of marking may be out of 10 (9, 8 and a half...), in grades (A, B, C, D, E), in per cent — the highest is 100, the lowest — "naught", the pass is 50 %or higher. League tables are published in the national press showing the exam results of each school. Consequently, some schools are more popular with them than others. About 45 %of 16-year-olds stay in full-time education. .Some attend so called Sixth Form (sixth form of a Secondary School or a Sixth Form college) which require two more years of study after GCSE and which prepare them for taking A-level examinations. For other school-leaves and for adults of all ages universities, polytechnics and other colleges provide a vast net of courses, both academic and vocational.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION

Compulsory education in Britain begins at the age of 5 but in some areas there are NurserySchools for children under 5 years of age. Some children between 2-5 receive education in nursery classes or in infant classes in Primary Schools. Many children attend informal pre-school play-grounds organised by parents in private homes. Nursery schools are staffed with teachers and students in training. There are all kinds of toys to keep the children busy from 9 o'clock in the morning till 4 o'clock in the afternoon — while their parents are at work. Here the babies play, lunch and sleep. They can run about and play in safety with someone keeping an eye on them.

For day nurseries, which remain open all the year round, the parents pay according to their income. The local education authority's nurseries are free. But only about 3 children in 10( can go to them: there aren't enough places, and the waiting lists are rather long.

PRIMARY (ELEMENTARY) EDUCATION

Most children start school at the age of 5 in a primarj school. A Primary School is divided into Infant and Junioi ones. At Infant Schools reading, writing and arithmetic {three "Rs") are taught for about 20 minutes a day during the first year, gradually increasing to about two hours in their last year. There is usually no written timetable. Much time is spent ii modelling from clay or drawing, reading or singing. By the time children are ready for the Junior School they will be able tc read and write, do simple addition and subtraction of numbers.

At the age of 7 children go on from the Infants School tc the Junior School. This marks the transition from play to "rej work". The children have set periods of arithmetic, reading am composition which are all "Eleven Plus" subjects. History, Geography, Nature Study, Art and Music, Physical Education, Swimming are also on the timetable. Core subjects are, English, Maths, Science (Foreign languages in Secondary Schools). Exams in them are taken at the age of 7 and 11.

Pupils are streamed, according to their ability to learn, into A-, B-, C- and D-stream. The least gifted are in the D-stream. Formerly towards the end of their fourth year the pupils wrote their "Eleven Plus" Examination. The hated examination was a selective procedure on which not only the pupils' future schooling but their future careers depended. The abolition of selection at "Eleven Plus" Examination brought to life Comprehensive Schools where pupils of all abilities can get secondary education.

SECONDARY EDUCATION SCHOOLS

Comprehensive Schools dominate among all types of schools in secondary education: 90 %of all state-financed Secondary Schools are of this type. Most other children receive secondary education in Grammar, Secondary Modern and very few Secondary Technical Schools. Those who can pay go to Public Schools.

The transition from Primary to Secondary School is made between the age of 11-12 years. At this age only some children sit for the selective examinations to be admitted to Grammar Schools. " 11+" is retained mostly in Wales.

Comprehensive Schools. Comprehensive Schools were introduced in 1965. The idea of comprehensive education, supported by the Labour Party, was to give all children of whatever background the same opportunity in education. So Comprehensive Schools are non-selective ("all-in") schools, which provide a wide range of secondary education for all the children of a district. They are the most important type of school because they are attended by 88 %of all Secondary School pupils. All Scottish state pupils also attend non-selective schools.

There are various ways in which a Comprehensive School can be organised. It can by "streaming"within the school try to keep children of approximately similar ability in one group or class; or it can leave the children to choose between large numbers of courses; or it can combine the two methods. Pupils may leave the school at the age of 16 or 18.

Comprehensive Schools are often very large with up to 2000 pupils.

Grammar Schools. A Grammar School mainly provides an exam-centred academic course from 11 to 18. It is the main route to the universities and the professions. A large proportion of university students is recruited from Grammar Schools, though they make 3 % of all schools.

Most Grammar School pupils remain at school until 18 or 19 years old, especially if they want to go on to a university. Some degree of specialisation, especially as between arts and science subjects, is usual in the upper forms. The top form is always called the "sixth form". Pupils may remain in this form for 2-3 years, until they leave school. Selection of Primary School children for Grammar Schools is usually based on school record cards, teachers' reports, tests and consultation with parents. After the Reform Act of 1988 many Grammar Schools were turned into Comprehensives and the change was in many cases very painful.

Secondary Modern Schools give a general education with a J practical bias¹. It is common for more time to De given to handicrafts, domestic sciences and other practical activities than -in Grammar Schools. Foreign languages are not thought there.

"Streaming" is practised in secondary modern schools. The \children in each group are usually placed in three streams — A, and C; C-stream is for children of the least academic type, concentrating mainly on practical work.

Secondary Technical Schools, a smaller group (less than 2 %),] offer a general education largely related to industry commerce and agriculture. These schools are not very popular and few places have them. They provide teaching up to the age of 18.

PROBLEMS STATE SCHOOLS

During the 1970s it was discovered that British system of! educationunderestimated the importance of craft skills and national targets for education. So at that time grater emphasis was made on education and training. Many new colleges of

further education were established to provide technical or vocational training. But British education remained too academic for the less able, and technical studies remained weak with the result that a large number of less able pupils leave school without any skill at all. By 1990s 9 out of 10 West German employees had vocational training qualification while in Britain only one in 10.

Another problem is the continued high drop-out rate at the age of 16 and low level of achievement in Mathematics and Science among school-leaves. While over 80 %of pupils in West Germany and the USA and over 90 %in Japan stayed on till the age of 18, hardly 1/3 of British pupils did so.

Standards of teaching and learning are not high enough. State-maintained schools have to operate with fewer resources in more difficult circumstances, with low pay. This resulted in teachers' flight from the profession. By 1990 there were as many trained teachers not teaching as teaching. The shortage of teachers was great, especially in the subjects of greatest national importance: Maths and Science. Britain filled the gap by employing unemployed teachers from Germany, Netherlands, Australia and other countries.

The shortfall is not only in the total number of teachers, but also in the inadequate level of qualification of a high proportion of primary teachers, particularly in Science and Maths.

Though the expenditure on education increased almost twice compared with mid-1950s it is not enough, because "standards of learning are never improved by poor teachers and there are no cheap high quality routes into teaching". One can't but agree with these words of Eric Bolton, England's Chief Inspector of schools.

In England the Independent/State School Partnership Scheme was set up in 1997. It aims to encourage the sharing of experience and good practice between the two sectors.

INDEPENDENT SCHOOLS

Independent schools are private schools charging tuition fees and that is why they are independent of public funds, independent of the state educational system, but they are open to government control and inspection. The Department for Education has the power to require them to remedy any objectionable features in their premises, accommodation or instruction (teaching) and to exclude any person regarded as unsuitable to teach or to be proprietor of a school.

There is a wide range of independent schools covering every age group and grade of education. They include Nursery Schools and Kindergartens (taking children of Nursery and Infant School ages), Primary and Secondary Schools of both day and boarding types.

- The most important and expensive of the independent schools are known as Public Schools, which are.private Secondary Schools taking boys from age of 13 to 18 years, and Preparatory Schools (colloquially called "Prep" Schools), which are private Primary Schools preparing pupils for Public Schools. The terms "primary" and "secondary" are not normally applied to these independent schools because the age of transfer from a Preparatory School to a Public School is 13 or 14 and not 11 as in the state system of primary and secondary education.

PREPARATORY SCHOOLS

Preparatory Schools are usually small (for 50-100 children).

They prepare the pupils for the Common Entrance Examination, set by independent Secondary Schools. "Prep" Schools are situated chiefly in the country or at the seaside resorts. They are much later development than the Public Schools. Few of them date back further than 1870. Preparatory Schools admit pupils aged 8 and teach them up to 13-14. Each pupil is given personal attention.

PUBLIC SCHOOLS

Public Schools form the backbone of the independent sector. With a few exceptions all Public Schools are single-sex boarding schools, providing residential accommodation for their pupils, though many of them take some day pupils too. A typical Public School has about 500 boys but a few have more (e. g. Eton has more than 1100 boys).

Some of the Public Schools date from the 16th century or earlier and they form the pinnacle¹ of fee-paying education (in the 1990s the boarding Public School-fees were between 5000 and 15000 pounds annually). Of the several hundred Public Schools the most famous are the Clarendon Nine. Their status lies in an attractive combination of social superiority and antiquity. These are the oldest and most privileged Public Schools: Winchester (1382), Eton (1440), St. Paul's (1509), Shrewsbury (1552), Westminster (1560), The Merchant Taylor's (1561), Rugby (1567), Harrow (1571) and Charterhouse (1611).

When choosing a school some parents consider the availability of an "Old School Tie" network, which may help their child to get a job and to develop socially useful lifelong friendships, cooperative and self-help lines known as "jobs for the boys". The most famous of such networks may be the grouping of old Etonians, Harrorians and others known as the Establishment. Girls' schools offering access to this network would be Roedean, Benenden or Cheltenham Ladies College. (The cost of education in these privileged schools is 15000 pounds per year.) There are about 35000 Secondary Schools in Britain, only 2300 are independent, of which 427 are Public Schools.

Demand for Public school education is now so great that many schools register babies' names at birth. Eton maintains two lists: one for the children of "old boys", those who studied there, and the other for outsiders. Usually there are 3 applicants for everyvacancy For example, in 1988 there were 203 names down for only 120 places at Radley School in the year 2000. And it is not surprising that Public Schools cream off many of the ablest teachers from the state sector, and teaching standards are very high and much better than in any other Secondary Schools.

Public Schools admit pupils from private Preparatory Schools ("Preps") which prepare children for the Common Entrance Examination.

Public Schools offer entrance scholarships (from 6 tolO! annually). But the fees remain heavy even for scholarship winners. The competition for those scholarships is very severe, and the syllabuses of the scholarship examinations with their high standard in Latin and other subjects are quite out of keeping with the Primary School curriculum.

Independent fee-paying schools were exempted¹ from teaching according to the National Curriculum.

AFTER SIXTEEN

Pupils going on to higher education or professional training usually take A-level examinations in 2-3 subjects. These require two more years of study after GCSE, either in the Sixth Form of a Secondary School or in a separate Sixth-Form college. The A-level exam is taken at the age of 18, and is the main standard for entry to university education and to many forms of professional training. But some pupils want to stay on at school after taking their GCSE, to prepare for a vocational course or for work rather than for A-level examinations. Then they take the CPVE examination — the Certificate of Pre-Vocational Education.

What Sixteen-Year-Olds Do:

27%Youth-Training schemes

25 % State schools

14%Further education including Sixth-Form colleges

12 % Unemployed

10 % Full-time employment

6 % Independent schools

5%Part-time education in employment (further-education courses)

EXAMSAND CERTIFICATES

Besides 3 standard assessment tests (at the age of 7,11,14) two public examinations are set: GCSE exam on completion of the compulsory education (at the age of 16) and GCE A-level, or AS exams on completion of the two voluntary years (Sixth Form).

At the age of 16 pupils take the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), introduced in 1989. They must take the English Language, Maths and Science for GCSE, as well as a half GCSE in a foreign language and Technology. GCSE replace O-level Certificate.

About 45 %of school-leavers continue with full-time education after 16. Those pupils who stay on for two more years usually take A (Advanced) levels, AS (Advanced Supplementary) levels or GNVQs (Qreater National Vocational Qualifications), ft is quite common to combine two A-levels with one AS-level or one A-fevel with one GNVQ. Pupils taking A-levels study traditional subjects such as French, Physics or History. To go to a university pupils need two or three A-levels. AS-level is the same standard as A-level, but only half the content. For example, AS-level German pupils take A-leyel the German Language exam, but do not take A-Ievel the German Literature exam.

GNVQs are vocational qualifications. Pupils usually take one GNVQ in subjects such as Business, Leisure and Tourism, Manufacturing, Art and Design. One GNVQ at advanced level is equal to two A-Ievels.

Scotland, with a separate education tradition, has a slightly different system. Children stay in the Primary School until the age of 12. The National Curriculum does not apply in Scotland and each school director decides what subjects the school will teach. At the age of 16 pupils take the Scottish Certificate of Education (SCE), and instead of A-level take the Scottish Higher Certificate which is more like continental European examinations, since it covers a wider area of study than the highly specialised A-level courses. Scots pupils may take the Certificate of Sixth Year Studies (CSYS).

Secondary education in Northern Ireland and Wales is organised along selective lines according to children's abilities.

ADMISSION TO A UNIVERSITY

Every university admits each year a definite number ofl students for each of its courses. Applications are made to the UCCA (Universities Central Council for Admission) months before a student takes his A-level. He completes a form writing down the names of 6 universities in order of preference. He may put down only two or three names, thus stating that if not accepted by these universities he could be willing to go to no other.

The copies of the form are sent to the universities concerned, and the university board or department members consider the student's form, the account of his out-of-school activities, the references one of which must be from the headteacher of his school. If there are no reasons for immediate refusal the student may be given a personal interview. On the basis of all this he may be sent a definite rejection or made a conditional offer. The offer depends on A-level results. If the candidate fulfils the conditions of the university he receives a definite offer. The candidate must accept or refuse the offer within 72 hours. Some candidates may get offers from several universities. Generally applicants for university places exceed the number of places available, so entry to the universities is competitive. The more popular the university, the more applicants for a place it will have and the higher grades it will ask for.

HIGHER EDUCATION

General

The system of higher education in Britain includes universities, colleges of higher education and advanced courses in the further education. The British educational system on the higher level is still more selective and class-divided than secondary education, particularly so far as the oldest universities are concerned.

Most big towns in Britain have both a university and a college of higher education. There are 91 universities and 47 colleges of higher education today. Universities offer 3- and 4-year degree courses, though a number of subjects take longer, including medicine, architecture and foreign languages (where courses include a year abroad). Colleges of higher education offer boil two-year HND (Higher National Diploma) courses, as well degree courses.

Undergraduate courses normally take 3 years of full-time study and lead in most cases to a Bachelor degree in Arts, Science or Education (BA, BSc, BEd). Undergraduates, students who study for degrees, go to large formal lectures, but most of the work takes place in tutorials: lessons in groups of 10 or more when the students discuss their work with the lecturer.

There are various postgraduate one- or two-year research courses leading to degree of Master of Philosophy (PhM); Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is awarded for some original research in Arts or Sciences on completion of a 3-year period of work. Students of law, architecture and some other professions can take qualifications awarded by their own professional bodies instead of degrees.

Uniformity of standards between universities is promoted by the practice of employing outside examiners for all examinations. The general pattern of teaching is similar throughout Britain — a combination of lectures, small group seminars or tutorials with practical classes where necessary.

Only 25 %of the student population go on to higher education. Competition to get into one of Britain's universities is fierce and not everyone who gets A-levels is admitted.

Students usually need three A-levels with high grades to go to university. Grades at A-level go from Ato E. One university may require higher A-level grades than another. Most universities require two Bs and one grades.

Students apply to universities months before they take their A-levels. They are given a personal interview and then the universities decide which applicants they want, offer them a place which depends on A-level results. The more popular the university, the higher the grades it will ask for.

Over 90 %of full-time students receive grants to assist with their tuition, cost of living, books, transport and socialising. But parents with higher incomes are expected to make a contribution. Until 1990 the grants did not have to be paid back, but now a system of loans has been introduced.

Some students borrow money from the bank, which must be paid back after they leave the university and start working. In fact, the grant is not a lot of money. That's why students work during the holidays to earn more money. As it is difficult to find such jobs more and more students are dropping out, failing to finish their courses. So the system of grants and scholarships is unable to solve the financial problems of education which block educational opportunities for many people. About 15 %of British students leave universities without obtaining a degree.

British universities are popular among foreign students. In spite of the high fees a large number (over 70000) foreign students are getting high education there.

Although universities accept students mainly on the basis of their A-level results, there is an exception. The Open University, which was started in 1971, caters for adults who did not have these formal qualifications and who regret missed opportunities earlier. It conducts learning through correspondence, radio and television, also through local study centres.

OXBRIDGE

Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest, the most prestigious and privileged universities in the United Kingdom. They preserve historically developed traditions in life and education.

Both universities grew gradually as federations of in­dependent colleges most of which were founded in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. Both are cities of fine architecture, represented by Norman, Gothic, Renaissance, classic and modern art, Oxbridge is not only beauty in stone but it is history in stone and wonderful blending of ancient and modern.

There are about 40 colleges in Oxford and 30 in Cambridge. The construction of each college is connected with a name of some king or queen of England or with some prominent people of the country. Each college has its own name, arms (symbols) and traditions. Among the oldest colleges in Oxford are University College (1249), Queen's College (1341), All Souls (1438), Magdalene (1458) and Christ Church (1525). The latest creation is Greene College (1979).

The oldest colleges in Cambridge are Peterhouse (1284) and Corpus Christi (1352) and the newest is Robinson College (1977). The most famous is probably King's College (founded by Henry VI in 1440) because of its magnificent chapel, the largest and the most beautiful building in Cambridge and the most perfect example of English 15th-century Gothic architecture. Its choir of boys and undergraduates is also well-known.

For centuries Oxbridge universities were for men. Only in 1871 the first college for women was opened in Cambridge and later another one, while by the same time in Oxford there were 5 colleges for women, followed by 5 co-educational (mixed) in the next century. In the 1970s most colleges opened their doors to both men and women. Now almost all colleges are co­educational. W)men are admitted on equal terms with men but the ratio has not changed much. Since 1960s the general proportion among all the universities is 3 to 1. The ratio of women to men in Cambridge is about 7 to 1 and 4 to 1 in Oxford.

Cambridge has always had a particularly high reputation in the field of Science and Mathematics, Oxford in classical studies and the humanities. This partly explains the difference in the ratio of women to men.

The college system at Oxbridge is unlike that at any other university in Britain, Each college in Oxbridge is different, but in many ways they are alike. They are all residential colleges and the college is a place where students live, no matter what profession they are trained for. So students studying Literature and those who are trained for Physics may belong to the same college. Some colleges are large counting about 500 members, others are very small having less than 30 students. Each college offers teaching in a wide range of subjects. Within the college one will normally find a chapel, a dining hall, a library, rooms for undergraduates and the staff, as well as rooms for teaching purposes. Each college is independent and selfgoverning. It is governed by its master and its Fellows, of whom there are usually 20 or 30. Teaching here is based on the tutorial system, which is partly being extended to other universities too. This is a system of individual tuition organised by the colleges. Each Fellow is a tutor in his own subject to the undergraduates who are studying it. Each student goes to his tutor's room once every week to read out an essay which he has written, and for an hour he and the tutor discuss the essay. The tutor also directs the student's reading, advises him what lectures to attend and keeps an eye on his progress. A student does not necessarily go only to his own tutor in his college for all his tutorials (as these weekly meetings are called), but he may be assigned to another Fellow in his own college or in another college when he is studying some particular topic which is outside the interest of his own tutor.

Lectures are organised by the University. The Fellows of individual Colleges may also be appointed as university lecturers or professors. All the teachers at Oxford and Cambridge, whether they are professors and lecturers or Fellows or both, are commonly called dons. Attendance of lectures is not compulsory, tutors advise their students which lectures they should go to. Some lectures are crowded, some are sparsely attended depending on the popularity of a lecturer.

Besides lectures, the University organises examinations, awards degrees, provides laboratories and equipment, libraries and the like. The Colleges, on the other hand, are responsible for the tutorials and the accommodation of their students. Also admissions to Oxford and Cambridge are controlled by the Colleges, for anyone who wants to study at Oxford or Cambridge rnust apply for a place at one of their Colleges. The Colleges have ⁿo w about 10 candidates for every one place, so the competition is fierce.

Both Oxford and Cambridge are self-governing universities, subjected to no external control except that of Parliament. Their governing bodies are Congregation and Convocation. Congregationconsists of all masters and doctors who are active in the University, in all about 1000. Convocationis a body with a little real power (about 14000 members). Congregation elects Hebdominal Council (in Oxford) or Council of Senate (in Cambridge) which initiate all legislative and by a system of committees do all the work necessary for the smooth running of the University. The Chancellor(the Head of the University) is elected for life. He acts as a formal head and is not paid. But he is usually a prominent figure in public life. The chief academic and administrative officer is theVice-Chancellorwho is responsible for the running of the University. There are officers who maintain order in the university, they are known as proctors.Proctors are elected for one year from the younger Fellows of the colleges in rotation.

TRADITIONS AT OXFORD

All in all Oxford and Cambridge are very conservative places: their forms, customs and procedure constantly reproduce the Middle Ages, though, of course, they reflect many of the changes of the last century. There are many traditions connected with the history of the Universities, which are still linked to, observed and cherished. Some of them are as follows. » Latinis used at degree ceremonies. » Students are wearing full academic dress at exami­nations.

» Proctors still tour the streets at night in cap and gown accompanied by "bulldogs", their younger assistants, looking for malefactors (violation of rules). The college rules forbid their members to be out after midnight, entertain women after a certain hour and so on.

*Students first appear in the Bodleian Library in "decorous attirement" and promise to respect books and not "to kindle fire or flame within the library".

» The tradition does not allow students to walk on the grass of the "court" (yard) of the College. It is the privilege of professors and head students.

*On every New Year's Day bursar (the man who is in charge of the money matters) of the Queen's College presents each Fellow with a needle and thread with the words "Take this and be thriefty". The tradition comes from the old times. Queen's College was founded by Robert de Eaglesfield in 1341. He set a head and 12 Fellows to govern the college (in memory of Christ and his 12 disciples). He used to hold this ceremony as a pun on his name "Eaglesfield" which in French sounded like English "needle, thread".

*In the same college on Christmas Day a roast boar's head is carried with great ceremony to the table where the dons sit. The tradition celebrates the fight with a boar that was killed by a student by thrusting down its throat a copy of Aristotle that he happened to be reading when attacked by the boar. The tradition goes back to the early years of the 16th century.

4 In Pembroke College Dr. Johnson's blue-and-white teapot is kept. He was a great tea drinker and on one of his visits to Oxford was poured out 18 cups of tea.

* In Christ Church College every night one can hear the

sound of Great Tom, the bell in Tom Tower designed by

. Christopher Wren. Every night at five minutes past 9 the

bell is rung 101 times in memory of the original number

of students in the college in Henry VIII's time.

4 In this college there is a statue of dean Liddel, for whose daughter Lewis Carroll, tutor in Mathematics at Christ Church, first told his immortal story of "Alice in Wonderland". His rooms can still be seen there as well as "Alice's Shop", which was described by Lewis Carroll in "Alice Through the Looking Glass". His real name was Charles Dodgson (1832-1898).

There are many other traditions and memorials which are reminders of the past.

OTHERUNIVERSITIES

The Redbrick ("civic") Universities differ considerably from Oxbridge in several respects, though there are similarities too. These universities are also headed formally by the Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellor being the real head responsible for the running of the university. They are not entirely self-governing as their Councils include representatives of outside bodies as well as university teachers. They draw most of their students from their locality. So few of these universities have residential halls and most students live in lodgings ("digs"). Nearly all are non-collegiate. Only some have separate colleges, e. g. London University is composed of largely autonomous colleges, and the University of Wales has colleges in different Welsh towns. Being non-residential they cannot develop a common student life in the way the Oxbridge do. Nor can they adopt the tutorial system in the same way.

While Oxbridge universities are divided into colleges, the Redbrick universities are divided into various faculties, e. g. Faculty of Arts, Faculty of Science, Faculty of Social and Economic Studies, etc., the number and type differing from university to university. In each faculty there may be a number of departments, dealing with separate subjects such as English, History, Geography, etc. Courses in Arts and Science are offered by most universities. The teaching is organised in departments and is based on a set of lecturers. The head of a department is usually a Professor. Other teachers do not have the title of Professor, but are entitled "Lecturers", though some senior teachers or heads of small departments have the title of "Reader" or "senior Lecturer". The Lecturer grade is the main teaching grade throughout the university world. Professors account for about one in 6 of all university teachers. The ratio of staff to students in most universities is about one to 8.

The "civic" universities have always devoted special attention to the technology of the industries of its region, so many of them have established independent traditions of their own: e. g. Sheffield is famous for metallurgy, Leeds for textiles, and Reading for agriculture.

The new universities, which were established in the 1960s, aim at attracting students from all over Britain. Like Oxbridge they are residential, e. g. the University of Sussex has halls of residence in a country park outside Brighton. The University of East Anglia is a collegiate university like Oxbridge. Their courses aim to provide the benefits of specialised and general studies.

OPEN UNIVERSITY

The most revolutionary of all the post-war developments in university education was the establishment of the Open University. It was initiated in 1963 by Harold Wilson (the Labour party leader and the Prime Minister) but opened in 1971. It is a non-residential university, which provides di fferent courses using a combination of TV and Radio broadcasts, correspondence (distance) courses, personal tuition, summer schools, a network of viewing and listening centres. Its fees are not high. No formal academic qualifications were required at first to register for these courses, but there were so many applicants that preparatory tests had to be introduced. So now students are admitted on a "first come, first served" basis. The students are of all ages and come from very different backgrounds. Some improve their qualifications, others, like retired people or mothers of grown up children, obtained the time to do something they have always wanted to but had no opportunity. Each student of the Open University gets the help and support of his own tutor (or counsellor) with whom he meets and corresponds regularly and whom he can telephone in case of any difficulty. There are meetings at which students get to know each other forming self-help groups. These groups meet in each others homes to discuss the texts and assignments, to help, support and stimulate each other. The nearest approach to the ordinary university life is summer schools, which both students and local tutors attend with great enthusiasm. It is here that most the students "find their feet".

The standards of the Open University degrees are the same as those of other universities. The degrees are awarded on a system of credits for each course completed. It takes 6—8 years to get a degree. Only 1 % of its registered members gets qualification degree or diploma. Approximately one in every 16 students graduating from the United Kingdom universities is from the Open University.

Most universities, including polytechnics, find themselves under financial pressure to seek supplementary funding from private sources. Commercial companies are likely to encourage the areas of study of immediate interest to them. But pure research, which accounts for significant advances, may suffer.

UNIT VII

SOCIAL SECURITY

The laws on social security In Britain appeared first in 1908-II. The Ministry of Social Secutity that administers the security services in the country these days was founded in I966. The social security system is designed to secure a basic standard of living for people in financial need by providing income during periods of inability to earn (including periods of unemployment), help for families and assistance with costs arising from disablement. Nearly a third of government expenditure is devoted to the social security programme, which provides financial help for people who are elderly, sick, disabled, unemployed, widowed, bringing up children or on very low icomes.

Some benefits depend on the payment of contributions by employers,employees and self-employed people to the National Insurance Fund, from which benefits are paid. The Government also contributes to the Fund. The other social security benefits are non-contributory and are financed from general taxation;some of these are income-related. Appeals about claims for benefits are decided by independent tribunals.

CONTRIBUTIONS

Entitlement to National Insurance benefits such as retirement pension, sickness and invalidity beneflt, unemployment benefit, maternity allowance and widow's benefit, is dependent upon the payment of contributions. Contributions are paid by means of national insurance stamps which can be .bought at a Post Office and have to be stuck on to special cards provided by the Department. Each card runs for 52 weeks and at the end of that period it has to be exchanged for a new one. The stamped card handed in exchange for a new one is sent to the Central Office at Newcastle where the contributions it represents are posted to the contributor's individual record.

There are four classes.-of contributions;

Class I –paid by employees and their employers. Employees with earnings below 56 pounds a week do not pay Class I contributions. Contributions on earnings of 56 pounds a-week and over are at the rate of 2 per cent of the first 56 pounds of total earnings and 9 per cent of the balance, up to ths upper earnings limit of 420 pounds a week. Employer’s contributions are subject to the same threshold. On- earnings above the threshold, contributions rise in stages from 4.6 per cent of total earnings up to a maximum of 10.4 per cent when earnings are 195 pounds or more a week; there is no upper earnings. The contribution is lower if the employer operates a “contracted-out” occupational pension scheme.

Class II –paid by self-employed people. Class II contributions are at a flat rate of 5.55 pounds a week. The self-employed may claim exemption from payment of Class II contributions if their profits are expected to be below 3,140 pounds for the tax year. Self-employed people are not eligible for unemployment and industrial injuries benefits.

Class III –paid voluntarily to safegurd rights to some benefits Class III contributions at a flat rate of 5.45 pounds pounds a week.

Class IV-paid by the self employed on their taxable profits over a set lower limit (6,340 pounds a year), and up to a set upper limit (2I,840 pounds a year) in addition to their Class II contribution. Class. IV contributions are payable at the rate of 6.3 per cent.

Employees who work after pensionable age (60 for women and 65 for men) do not pay contributions but the esployer continues to be liable. Self-employed people over pensionable age do not pay contributions.

BENEFITS

For most benefits there are two contribution conditions. First, before benefit can be paid at all, a certain number of contributions have to be paid. Secondly, the full rate of benefit cannot be paid unless contributions have been paid or credited to a specific level over set period. Benefits are increased annually in line with percentage increases in retail prices. The main benefits (payable weekly) are summarised below.

Retirement Pension

A state retirement pension is payable, subject to the satisfaction of contribution conditions, to women at the age of 60 and men at the age of 65. The Sex Discrimination Act 1988 protects employees of different sexes in a particular occupation from being required to retire at different ages. This, however, has not affected the payment of the state retirement pension at different ages for men and women. The Government is committed to the equalisation of the state pension age for men and women and in 1931 published a discussion document setting out some of the issues involved. Comments and views on various approaches to equalisation, including differing common pension ages and models for a flexible pension age, were invited and. responses .are now being considered.

The state pension scheme consists of a basic weekly pension of 56.10 pounds for a single person and 89.80 pounds for married couple, together with an additional earnings-related pension. Pensioners may have unlimited earnings without affecting their pensions. Those who have put off their retirement during the five years after state pension age may earn extra pension. Anon-contributory retirement pension of 33.70 pounds a week is payable to people over the age of 60 who meet certain residence conditions, and who have not qualified for a contributory pension. People whose pensions do not give them enough to live on may be entitled to income support.

Rights to basic pensions are safeguarded for mothers who are away from paid employment looking after children or for people giving up paid employment to care for severely disabled relatives. Man and women may receive the basic pension, provided they have paid full-rate National Insurance contributions when working.

Occupational and Personal Pentions

Employers may "contract out" their employees from the state scheme for the additional earnings-related pension and provide theirown occupational pension instead. Their pension must be at least as good as the state additional pension. Joining an employer's contracted-out scheme is voluntary: employers are not free to contract cut enployess from the earnings-related pension scheme without the eaployees' consent. The State remains responsible for the basic pension.

Occupational pension schemes cover about half the working population and have over 2 million members. The occupational pension rights of those who change jobs before pensionable age, who are unable or who do not want to transfer their pension rights, are now, protected against inflation up to a maximum of 5 per cent.

Parents and Children

Most pregnant working women receive their statutory maternity pay directly from their employer for a maximum of 13 weeks . There are two rates:

where woman has been working for the same employer for at least two years, she is entitled to 90 per cent of her average weekly earnings for the first six weeks and to the lower rate of 47.95 pounds a week for the remaining 12 weeks;

where a woman has been employed for between 26 weeks and two years, she is entitled for up to 18 weeks at the lower rate.

Women who are not eligible for statutory maternity pay because, for example, they are self-employed, have recently changed jobs or given up their job, may qualify for a weekly maternity allowance of 43.75 pounds, which is payable for up to 18 weeks.

A payaent of 100 pounds from the social fund may be available if the mother or her partner are receiving income support, family credit or disability working allowance. It is also available if a woman adopts a baby.

Non-contributory child benefit of 10 pounds for the eldest and 8.10 pounds weekly for each other child is the general social security benefit for children. Tax-free and normally paid to the .mother, it is payable for children up to the age of 16 and for those up to-19 if they continue in full-time non-advanced

education.

Widows

Widows under the age of 60, or those over 60 whose husbands not entitled to state retirement pension when they died, receive a tax-free single payment of 1,000 pounds following the death of their, husbands, provided that their husbands had paid a minimum number of National Insurance contributions. Women whose husbands have died of an industrial injury or prescribed disease may also qualify, regardless of whether their husbands had paid National Insurance contributions. A widowed mother with a young family receives a widowed mother’s allowance of 55.10 pounds a week.

A widow’s basic pension of 55.10 pounds a week is payable to a widow who is 56 years or over when her husband dies or when her entitlement to a widowed mother’s allowance ends.A percentage of the full rate is payable to widows who are aged between 45 and 54 when their husbands die or when their entitlement to widowed mother's allowance ends .Entitlement continues until the widow remarries or begins drawing retirement pension. Payment ends if she lives with a man as his wife. Widows also benefit under the industrial injuries scheme. A man whose wife dies when both are over pension age inherits his wife's pension rights just as a widow inherits her husband's rights.

Sick and Disabled People

A large variety of benefits is available for people unable to work because of sickness or disablement. Employers are responsible for paying statutory sick pay to employees for up to a maximum of 28 weeks. There are two weekly rates of 46.95 pounds or 52.50 pounds - depending on average weekly earnings. Employees who are not entitled to statutory sick pay can claim weekly state sickness benefit of 42.70 pounds instead, as can self-employed people. Sickness benefit is payable for up to 28 weeks.

A weekly invalidity pension of 56.10 pounds - with additions of 33.70 pounds for an adult dependant, 9.80 pounds for the eldest child and 10.95 pounds for each other child - is payable when statutory sick pay or sickness benefit ends.

A severe disablement allowance of 33.70 pounds plus an age-related addition of up to 11. 95 pounds a week say be payable to people under pensionable age who are unable to work and do not qualify for the National Insurance invalidity pension because they have not paid sufficient contributions. Additions for adult dependants and for children may also be paid.

Various benefits are payable for disablement caused by an accident at work or a prescribed disease. The benefit is industrial injuries disablement benefit; disablement benefit of up to 91.60 pounds a week is usually paid after a qualifying period of 15 weeks if a person is 14 per cent or more physically or mentally disabled as a result of an industrial accident or a prescribed disease.

Unemployment Benefit

Unemployment benefit of 44, B5 pounds week for a single person or 72.20 pounds for a couple is payable for up to a year in any one period of unemployment. Periods covered by unemployment or sickness benefit, matirnty allowance or some training allowances which are eight weeks or less apart, are linked to form a single period of interruption of work. Everyone claiming unemployment benefit has to be available for work, but unemployed people wishing to do voluntary work in the community may do so in some cases without losing entitlement to benefit. People seeking unemployement benefit are expected to look for work actively and must have good reasons for rejecting any job that is offered.

Income Support

Income support is payable to people who are not in work or who work for less than 16hours a week, and whose financial resources are below certain set levels. It consists of a personal allowance ranging from 25.45 pounds weekly for a single person or lone parent aged under 18 to 69 for a couple, at least one of whome is aged over 18. Additional sums, known as premiums, are avallable to families, lone parents, pensioners, long-term sick and disabled people, and those earing for then who qualify for the invalid care allowance.

The income support scheme sets a limit to the amount of capital a person may have and still remain entitled. People with savings or capital worth than 8,000 pounds are ineligible; savings between 3,000 pounds and 8,000 pounds will reduce the amount received.

Housing benefit

The housing benefit scheme assists people who need help to pay ttheir rent. People whose net income is below certtain specified levels may receive housing benefit equivalent to 100 per cent of their rent .

'As with income support, the housing benefit scheme sets a limit of 3,000 on the amount of capital a person may have and still remain entitled.

Family Credit

Family credit ispayable to employed and self-eaployed working families with children on modest incomes. It is payable to couples or lone parents. At least one parent must work for a minimum of 16 hours a week. The amount payable depends on a familie’s net income (excluding child benefit) and the number and ages of the children in the family. A maximum award, consisting of an adult rate of 42,50 pounds weekly, plus a rate for each child varying with age, is payable if the family's net income does hot exceed 69 pounds a week. The award is reduced by 70 pence for each pound by which net income exceeds this amount. Family credit Is not payable if a family's capital or savings exceed 8,000 pounds.

Social Fund

Discretionary payments, in the form of loans or grants, may be available to people on low incomes for expenses which are difficult to meet from their. regular income. There are three types:

budgeting loans to help meet important occasional expenses;

crisis loans for help in an emergency or a disaster;

community care grants to help people re-establish themselves or remain in the community and to help exceptional pressure on families.

Payments are also made from the social fund to help with the costs of maternity or funerals or with heating during very cold weather.

UNIT VIII

FAMOUS MEN OF ART

Painting in England in the 17th-19th centuries is represented by a number of great artists, and during that period it was greatly influenced by foreign painters. The Flemish painter Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641) was really the father of the English portrait school.

The English king personally invited Van Dyck to London, and during his first year in England the painter spent most of his time painting the king and the queen. Van Dyck created the impressive, formal type of portrait, and such masters as Reynolds, Gainsborough, Lawrence and Raeburn owe much to their study of his canvases.

One of the most popular of Van Dyck's works is the "Family Portrait".

During the 18th century a national school of painting was founded in England. William Hogarth (1697-1764) was the first great English artist who raised British art to a high level of importance.

Hogarth painted many pictures. Success had come to him due to hard labour. He wrote, "I know of no such thing as genius. It is nothing but labour and diligence."

Hogarth is also well known as a satirist on canvas and a hu­morist. He loved to call himself "author" rather than "artist". We recognize his literary talent and can place him with such great masters of literature as Moliere, Fielding, and Thackeray.

Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) was the most outstanding portraitist of the second half of the 18th century. He was born in Devoshire in 1723. He received a good education from his father, a. clergyman and master of the free grammar school. At seventeen Reynolds went to London to study painting, where he soon became a fashionable portrait-painter. In 1768 Reynolds became the first president of the Royal Academy founded at that time.

Reynolds completed a whole gallery of portraits of his famous contemporaries. He painted his models in heroic style showing them as the best people of the nation. His portraits are not free of certain idealization of characters.

Reynolds' devotion to portraiture made him one of the foun­ders of the English school of portrait painting at that time. Some of his mythological works include real personages.

George Romney (1734-1802) painted portraits following Reynolds' style to some degree. Romney's portrait of Mrs. Greer shows a very attractive woman whose beauty is empha­sized by the contrast between her pale face and dark deep eyes and the strong colouring of her dress, done in black, grey and light tones. Romney never created a psychological image of his models. He expressed a general impression making it elegant and vivid.

John Hoppner (1758-1810) portrayed the English aristocracy at the end of the 18th century. Most of his works show elegant ladies and nice children.

John Opie (1761-1807) painted not only portraits but also historical scenes. The artist was mostly self-taught but very talented.

Henry Raeburn (1756-1823) was a Scottish painter. He cre­ated a great number of portraits that are done with much feeling. He uses shadow and light contrasts making his technique monochromatic. Raeburn's manner bears a certain resemblance to that of Reynolds*. But at the same time there are important differences between the two. In his portrait of Mrs. Bethume the painter shows not only the woman's wonderful beauty but also her inner character. The transmission from lilac to rust colours serves to emphasize the lyrical qualities of the model.

Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) can be called one of the greatest masters of the English school. He painted portraits and landscapes. His manner differs greatly from that of Reynolds circle. Gainsborough had little academic training. The influence of old masters is not so easily seen in his works. The famous "Blue Boy" is one of his best-known canvases. But there is no definite information about the date of its painting. The work was little known in Gainsborough's days.

Gainsborough greatly influenced the English school of 1 scape painting. He was one of the first English artists to P*jⁿhis native land. His best landscapes are "Cornard Wood", ^uMarket Cart", "The Bridge", "Sunset" and Gainsborough's great love for his country-side, and his ability paint it made him an innovator in this field. His works conta

much poetry and music. Gainsborough is sometimes cosidered to be a forerunner of impressionists, although he did not know their theories and techniques.

John Constable (1776-1837) was an English landscape-painter. His most famous works are "The Lock", "A Cottage in a Cornfield", "The Haywain" and others. He often repeated themes depicted by Gainsborough. Nevertheless, Constable seems really to belong to another century. He was the first painter who worked in the open air making his sketches direct from nature. This manner of painting is characteristic of modern artists. Constable's technique is close to that of the impressionists.

Joseph Turner (1775-1851) was born in London. His father kept a barber's shop. Turner chose to be an artist when he was thirteen. Until 1792 Turner painted only water-colours. His first oil painting was exhibited in the Royal Academy in 1793. In 1802 Turner was elected Academician of Royal Academy and he enjoyed the dignity of Academician for nearly half a century.

More than anything else in nature Turner loved the sea, to which he devoted many of his canvases ("The Shipwreck", "Fish­ing Boats in a Squall" and others). The sea in itself excited him, but especially he loved to paint the sea as it affected ships.

THEATRES

London has about 100 theatres. 15 of them permanently occupied by subsidised companies. These include:

The Royal Natlonal Theatre, which stages a wide range of modern and classical plays in its three auditoriums on the South Bank;

the Royal Shakespeare , which presents plays mainly by Shakespeare and his contemporaries, as well as some modern work, both in Stratford-upon-Avon and its two auditoriums in the City's Barbican Centre;

the English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre in Sloane

Square, London, which stages the work of many talented new

playwrights.

Most theatres are commercially run and self-financing,relying on popular shows and musicals to be profitable. By contrast companies funded by the Arts Council tend to offer a variety of traditional and experimental or innovative productions. Experimental or innovative work is often staged in “fringe” theatres in London and other cities; these are smaller theatres which use a variety of buildings, such as rooms in pubs.

Among the best-known directors are Sir Peter Hall, Trevor Hunn, Adrian Loble, Jonathan Miller, Terry Hands and Deborah Warner, while the many British performers who enjoy international reputation include Sir Alec Guinness, Sir Anthony Hopkins, Vanessa Redgrave, uhet Stevenson and others. British stage designers such as John Bury, Ralf Moltai and Carl Toms are internationally recognised.

Regional Theatres

Regional theatre companies with major reputations include the Citizens' Theatre, Glasgow; the Royal Exchange, Manchester; Bristol Old Vic; the Liverpool Playhouse (the oldest surviving repertory theatre In Britain); the Nottingham Playhouse, one of the first modern regional theatres. Successful productions from regional theatre companies .often transfer to London's East End, while the largest regional theatres receive visits from the Royal National Theatre or the Royal Shakespeare Company. The English Shakespeare Company tours the English regions and worldwide.

Theatre for Young People

The Young Vic Company in London and Contact Theatre Conpany in Manchester stage plays for young people. Nemerous Theatre-in-Education companies perform in schools. Some of these companies operate independently -Theatre Centre, for example, plays in London and tours further afield. .Others are attached, to regional repertory theatres. There are also a number of puppet companies.

Music

People in Britain are interested in a wide range of Music, from classical to different forms of rock and pop music.Jazz, folk, world and light music, and brass bands also have substantial following.

The first National Music Day was held in June 1992. Over 1.500 separate events were organised, ranging from large open-air concerts in Birmingham, Bath and London to many small events given by church choirs, school bands and folk groups. Till is intended to become an annual event.

Pop and RockMusic

Hundreds of hours of pop and rock music are broadcast through BBC and independent radio stations every week, while pop and rock magazine programmes and occasional live or recorded concerts on television further promote pop and rock, which is by far the most popular of musical expression In Britain.

In the 1960s and 1970s groups such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones. Led Zeppelin and Pink Floyd achieved international success. British groups continue to be papular throughout the world and are often at the forefront of new developments in music.

The rock musicals of Sir Andrew Lloyd Webher have been highly successful both in Britain and overseas: well known examples include "Jesus Christ Superstar", "Evita" and "Cats".

Jazz

Jazz has a large following In Britain and is played in numerous clubs and pubs. British musicians such as Barbara Thompson, Stan Tracey, Andy Sheppard and Courtney Pine have established strong reputations throughout Europe, Festivals of jazz music are held annually in Soho (London), Glasgow, Crawley (West Sussex) and at a number of other places. Jazz Services provides a national touring network.

Jazz FM, Britain's first radio station dedicated to jazz, was launched in the London area in 1990.

OPERA AND DANCE

Interest in opera has increased greatly in the last ten years.

Regular seasons of opera and ballet are held at the Opera House, Covent Garden( London), The Royal Opera, Royal Ballet and the Birmingham Royal Ballet, which rank .among the.world’s leading conpanies, are supported by professional, orchestras, as are English National Ballet and northern Ballet Theatre. Seasons of Opera in English are given by the English National Opara at the London Coliseum. Scottish Opera has regular seasons at the Theatre Royal in Glasgow; and tours mainly in Scotland and northern England. Welsh National Opera presents seasons in Cardiff and other cities. Opera North, based in Leeds, tours primarily .in the north of England and Opera Factory stages experimental work; in opera and music theatre. English Touring Opera takes opera to towns throughout England. Opera northern Ireland presents seasons at the House, Belfast, and tours in Northern Ireland.

FESTIVALS

Some 650 professional arts festivals take place in Britain each year. The Edinburgh International Festival, featuring a wide range of arts, is the largest of its kind in the world. Other annual festivals held in the Scottish capital include International Folk and. Jazz Festivals and the film and television Festival. The Mayfest, the second largest festival, takes place in Glasgow. Some well-known festivals concentrating on music are the Three Choirs Festival, which has taken place annually for 260 years in Gloucester, Worcester or Hereford; the Cheltenham Festival, largely devoted to contemporary British music; and the Aldeburgh festival.

APENDIX

COUNTIES Of THE UNITE KINGDOM

(with abbreviations ingeneraluse)

England

Avon

Bedfordshire (Beds.)

Berkshire (Berfes.)

Buckinghamshire (Bucks.)

Cambridgeshire (Cambs.)

Chershire (Ches.)

Cleveland

Cornwall(Corn.)

Cambria

Derbyshire(Derby.)

Devon

Dorset

Durham (Dur.)

East Sussex

Essex

Gloucestershire(Glos.)

Greater London

Greater Manchester

Hampshire (Hants)

Hereford & Worcester

Hertfordshire(Herts.)

Humberside

Isle of Whight (IOW)

Kent

Lancashire (Lancs.)

Leicestershire (Leics.)

Lincolnshire(Lincs.)

Merseyside

Norfolk

Northamtonshire(Northants )

Northumberland (Northumb.)

North Yorkshire

Nottinghamshire ( Notts. )

Oxfordshire (Oxon.)

Shropshire

Somerset (Som.)

South Yorkshire

Staffordshire (Staffs.)

Suffolk

Surrey

Tine and Wear

Warwickshire (War.)

West Midlands

West Sussex

West Yorkshire

Wiltshire (Wilts.)

Northern Ireland

Antrim

Armagh

Down

Fermanagh (Ferm)

Londonderry

Tyrone

(For actmmistrativepurposessmallerunit areas are used.)

Scotland

Regions

Borders

Central

Dumfrise& Galloway

Fife

Grampian

Highland

Lothian

Strathclyde

Tayside

Island areas

Orkney

Shetland

Western Isles

Wales

Clwyd

Dyfed

Gwent

Gwynedd

Mid Glamorgan

Powys

South Glamorgan

West Glamorgan

The Union Jack

The Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

the school system

STUDENT'S LIFE

On first coming up as a freshman, the student has rooms in his college allotted to him. Rent and size of rooms vary, but as a rule he has a comfortable sitting-room and a separate bedroom.

A student who takes his work seriously will read or attend lectures from 9 (or 9.30) till the midday meal (lunch) at 1, then take vigorous exercise of some sort on the playing fields or the river till tea at about 4.30 or 5, then do some more work till dinner at 7, and after dinner perhaps attend a meeting of some college society, spend a social evening with friends or get some more reading done. Once a week, at least, he will spend an hour with his tutor, who will criticise and discuss his work. Undisciplined students are fined or "gated", that is, not allowed to go out for a given time, or are "sent down" for good or rusticated (dismissed for term).

Much of the student's time is given to working in the library. Each college has its own library but Oxford is famous for its Bodleian Library — one of the oldest and most important libraries in the country. It is a copyright library (has the right to claim a copy of all new British publications), second in importance to the British Library. It was founded in 1598 and got its name after the founder Thomas Bodley. Every member of the University may become a reader in " Bodley" but first he has to appear decorously attired in his gown and promise to respect the books and not "to kindle fire or flame" within the library. The books are cbained to the shelves and may not be removed even at the request of the Queen (His or Her Majesty). The books are chained in the libraries of all oldest colleges.

Socialising is the important part of the students' life. The universities have over a hundred societies and clubs, enough for every interest one could imagine. Apart from the university clubs, each college has up to 20 societies, some of them of great antiquity. These are only open to members of the college and may be very exclusive. Many are dining or drinking clubs, others are essay societies, debating clubs and so on.

While many evenings are usually devoted to attending society meetings, afternoons are given up to numerous sports. One of the most famous sporting events in Oxbridge is the Boat Race annually held at Easter time. The teams of Oxford and Cambridge, each consisting of 8 rowers, row 4,5 miles along the river Thames in London. Crowds of people line the banks to watch the race and thousands more watch it on TV.

The year is divided into three terms of only 8 weeks each: Michaelmas Term (autumn"term),Hilary Term (winter term), Trinity Term (spring term) and long summer vacation lasting 4 months from June till mid-October. A long holiday is a relic from medieval times when scholars had to bring in the harvest. Nowadays vacations are regarded not as the rest time but the time for independent work. Students are given tasks in reading, studying literature, writing essays.

In his first term the student decides in which final honour schools he intends to read. There are 14 from which to choose. Having made his decision he is put under a tutor who directs his studies through his academic career, which may be 3—4 years, according to the subject which the student is reading.

After 2—3 terms the student takes his first exams — prelims.It is a first public examination and it is a test to see if he is capable of taking finals. He may have more than one shot at prelims but if he fails constantly his college may request him to make room for a more able man. Prelims over, he reads for the finals. In between are collections— term exams at the end of each term, and mods(moderations) — at the end of the 5th term. It is the first public exarn for the Bachelor's degree in some subjects. Final honour schools (finals, schools) include writing 11 three-hour papers and also viva voice¹exam which may be exhaustive or merely formal. In two months the undergraduate learns his fate and is awarded his first degree of Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc). In Scotland "Master" is used for a first degree. Oxbridge, as well as most universities, award degrees in 5 categories; First Class Honours (only 5 %), Upper Second, Lower Second, Third Class and Pass. The First Class Honours are of considerable prestige and professional value. The Pass degree standard is a safety-net, its standard is very low even in Oxbridge.

The degree of PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) is given for a thesis which is an original contribution to knowledge. It is common for both humanities and science: PhD in Physics, English, History, etc.

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

Нестерова Н. М. Страноведение Великобритании.- Москва:Феникс 2005 г.

Петрова С.В. Английский язык сборник тем.- Москва: Торсинг 2003 г.

Сатинова В.Ф. Читаем и говорим о Британии и британцах.- Минск: Высшая школа1997 г.

Стомпель Е.М. Страноведение Британии.- Астрахань1996 г.

Томахин Г.Д. Дом англичанина его крепость.- Москва: Просвещение 2002г.

Халилова Л.А. США: история и современность.- Москва: Айрис Пресс 2001 г.

Христорождественская Л.П. Английский язык устные темы.- Минск: Книжный дом 2004 г.

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